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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

©l^ap........ Sopirig^t :|a.. 

Shelf JD..f.^ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



FRENCH GRAMMAR 



BY THE^' 

REV. ALPHONSE DUFOUR, S.J., 

PROFESSOR OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE AT GEORGETOWN 
UNIVERSITY. 



FOLLOWED BY 

A MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION, 

TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH WORK OF 

THE REV. R. P. MANSION, S.J. 



3^«^< 



■^^H^'^^ 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY, 

1892. 



^-A- 






Copyright, 1892, 
By GINN & COMPANY. 



Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston, U.S.A. 
Presswork by Ginn & Company, Boston, U.S.A. 



PREFACE. 



The object of this book is to provide the student with a brief 
exposition of the principles of French grammar. We present to 
the pubUc neither a new system nor, strictly speaking, a new 
grammar, but the result of an experience of many years in 
teaching the French language. 

The first part, Etymology, is given in English, in order to 
afford the pupil time to acquire a vocabulary large enough to 
render future study of the language useful and attractive. 
While studying this part, he is supposed to read some French 
selections ; and for this purpose we have compiled a French 
Reader, beginning with the easiest compositions and proceed- 
ing by degrees to the most difficult. The student is supposed 
not only to read and translate these, but also, as far as possible, 
to commit them to memory. This will enable him to pass with 
advantage to the second part. Syntax. This part is given in 
French, in order to compel the pupil to make use of his 
acquired vocabulary, and help him to converse in French. 

In presenting rules and principles, we have tried to be as 
complete as possible, and the letters we have received from 
various professors testify more positively than we dared antici- 
pate to the success of our endeavor. Moreover, many of our 
friends have had the kindness to examine and criticise our 
work, and have given it their approbation. The book is small, 
because we know by experience that a voluminous book frightens 
the pupil and rarely presents the rules in a clear manner. We 
have followed the method prescribed by the "Ratio Studiorum," 
according to which the text-book is intended to assist the 
teacher, but not to take his place. This grammar, therefore, 
supposes a teacher ; it is not a self-teaching book. 

In the second part, we have followed the logical order, i.e. 
the order of the Parts of the Speech ; but in the first part we 



2 PREFACE. 

have pursued a more practical method. We begin with the 
verbs J because they are the soul of conversation, and because, 
as experience teaches, verbs are the terms most frequently 
used in every language. 

We omit the exercises usually given in grammars, because we 
have found them rather an obstacle than an assistance to the 
student. We do not wish to enter into any discussion on the 
subject, but our experience has proved to us that a purely 
grammatical text-book is better than a mixed text-book. 

In using the Reader, the following method is undoubtedly 
the best. The pupil should be told the meaning of each word 
in the selection. He should then translate the piece into his 
mother tongue, in order to make sure that he has caught the 
meaning of the words and of the whole selection. Having 
mastered the words as they stand, in such and such a combi- 
nation, he should compose short sentences made up of these 
words. As an example, let us take the first piece of our 
Reader : 

" Un ange au radieux visage, 
Penche sur le bord d'un berceau, 
Semblait contempler son image 
Comme dans I'onde d'un ruisseau." 

This selection ought to be explained, then translated word for 
word, without regard to the elegance of the English. — "An 
angel with radiant visage (countenance), inclined (leaning) 
over the edge (brim, brink, etc.) of a cradle, seemed (was 
seeming) to contemplate his image as it in the water of a brook 
(rivulet)." The pupil should then translate it into correct, 
idiomatic, and, if possible, elegant English. Let him afterward 
compose some sentences containing the words of the selection, 
as, " I seem to contemplate an angel in the water of a rivulet. 
— I was leaning over the brink of a rivulet, and I seemed to 
behold the image of an angel." 

Thus the industry of the student will be excited, and in a very 
few weeks he will be master of the five or six hundred words 
needed for conversation ; in other words, he will know French 
well enough to speak with intelligence and facility. 



CONTENTS. 



FIRST 


PART. 




ETYMOLOGY. 








PAGE 


Chapter I. — Verbs, . 




. 9 


Conjugation of Avoir, . 




9 


Eire, 




. II 


Regular Verbs, . 




12 


Conjugation of Couper, 




. 12 


Finir, . 




14 


Recevoir, . 




• 15 


Vendre, 




17 


Passive Voice, 




. 19 


Conjugation of Eire Coupe, 




19 


Reflective Verbs, . 




. 21 


Conjugation of Se Couper, 




21 


Ways of Conjugating, 




• 23 


Chapter II. — Numeral Adjectives^ 




24 


Chapter III. — Articles, 




. 27 


Chapter IV. — Substantives, 




29 


Gender, 




. 29 


Number, 




30 


Formation of the Plural, . 




• 31 


Nouns Common to Both Languages, . 


32 


Chapter \. — Adjectives, 


. 


. 33 


Qualifying Adjectives, . 


. 


ZZ 


Formation of the Feminine, 


. 


' 33 


Formation of the Plural, 


. . 


36 


, Adjectives Common to Both Languages, . 


• 37 


; Determinative, Numeral, Demonstrative, Possessive, . 


. 38 


Indefinite, . 


. 


. 39 



4 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Chapter VI. — Pronouns, ...... 40 

Personal, 40; Possessive, 42; Demonstrative, 43; Relative, 43; 
Indefinite, 43. 
Chapter VII. — Verbs, . . . . . .45 

Subject and Object, 47; Modification of Verbs, 47; Person and 
Number, 47; Modes, 48; Tenses, 49; Primitive Tenses, 50; 
Endings of the Primitive Tenses, 51; Formation of the De- 
rived Tenses, 52; A General Sequence of Tenses and Modes, 
53; Sequence of Tenses in the Indicative Mode, 55 ; Another 
Correlation of Tenses, 56; Orthographic Irregularities in 
Verbs — First Conjugation, 58; Second Conjugation, 59; 
Third Conjugation, 59; Fourth Conjugation, 59; Participles, 
59- 
Chapter VIII. — Invariable Words, . . . . .60 

Prepositions, 60; Adverbs, 60; Conjunctions, 60; Interjections, 

61. 
Model Verbs of the Irregular Conjugations, , , , 62 



SECONDE PARTIE. 

DE LA SYNTAXE. 

Chapitre I. — Analyse, . . . . . .71 

Modele d' Analyse Grammaticale, 73; Modele d' Analyse Logique, 
74. 
Chapitre II. — Du Norn, ...... 74 

Du Genre de Quelques Noms, 74; Du Nombre de Quelques Sub- 
stantifs, 76. 
Chapitre III. — De V Article, . ... . .78 

L' Article avant les Noms Propres, 80. 
Ckafitre lY. — De PA djeclif, ..... 81 

I. Adjectif Qualificatif, 8i; II. Adjectifs Determinatifs, 83. 
Chapitre V. — Des Pr ononis, . . . . . < 86 

Pronoms Personnels, 86; Pronoms Demonstratifs, 88; Pronoms 
Possessifs, 90; Pronoms Relatifs, 90; Pronoms Indefinis, 92. 
Chapitre VI. — Du Verbe, ..... 93 

Place du Sujet, 95; Complement du Verbe, 96; Place du Com- 
^ plement, 96. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



Chapitre VII. — Participe Present, . . . . .97 

Chapitre VIII. — Participe Passe, . . o . 98 

Participe Passe sans Auxiliaire, 98; Participe Passe avec auxi- 
liaire, 99; Recapitulation, loi. 
Chapitre IX. — De VAdverbe, ..... 102 

Place de I'Adverbe, 103; Emploi de la Negation, 104. 
Chapitre X. — De la Prepositiojt, .... 105 

Chapitre XI. — De la Conjonction, ..... 106 
Chapitre XII. — De V Interjection, .... 108 

Chapitre XIII. — Des Figures de Syntaxe, .... 108 

Ellipse, 108; Pleonasme, 108; Syllepse, 109; Inversion, 109. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

PART FIRST. 

Principles, . . . . . . , 'US 

Organs of Speech, . . . . . . .113 

Vowels, . . . . . . . . .114 

Written Accents, . . . , . . .118 

Signs Modifying the Sounds of Vowels, 118; Synopsis, 118. 
Consonants, . . . . . . . .119 

Diphthongs, . . . . . . .121 

Syllables, . . . . . . . .122 

Prosody, Accent, Quantity, . . . . . .123 

Place of the Tonic or Quasi-Tonic Accent, . . . .124 

Quantity, . ... . . . . . 126 

Different Degrees in Long and Short Syllables, 126; Syllables 
More or Less Short in the Body of Words, 126; Long Syl- 
lables by Position or by Apposition, 127; Long Syllables in 
the Body of Words, 128; Long Syllables at the end of 
Words, 128. 
Euphonic Connections, . , , . . . .129 

List of Consonants, 131. 



CONTENTS. 



PART SECOND. 

PAGE 

Notice, ........ 134 

Application of Given Principles — A, . • . . ' ^ZS 

Compound Vowels, . . . . . . .136 

Ai, 136; Ay, Ao, Au, £au, Aeu, Aim, Ain, Aon, 137; Aou, 138. 
Consonants, . . . . . . . .138 

A, 137; C, 138; Ch, D, 140; i, E, E, 141; 

Compound Vowels, Ei, Ey, Eu, ..... 144 

F, 145; G, 146; Gn, 147. 
^and the Diaeresis, 147. 

/, Vowel, 149; / and Y, Consonants, 149; J, K, L, 149; L, 

Liquid, 150; M, Consonant, 151 ; N, Consonant, 151. 

Nasal Signs of Vowels, . . . . . . .152 

M, N. — § I. Cases in which M and N Render Vowels Nasal, 
152; § II. Particular Sound of Each Vowel Rendered Nasal 
by M, N, 153. 
O, 155. 

Diphthongs, oi, oe, oy, oin, 156. 

Compound Vowels, ce, ceu, 157; Om, On, Aon, 157; Ou, Con- 
sonants, 157; P, 157; Ph, Compound Consonants, 158; Q, 
158; R, 158; S, 159; T, 161; Th, Compound Consonant, 
163; U, 163; V, W, X, 164; Y, Z, 165. 



PART FIRST. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



PRONUNCIATION, 



I. FRENCH ALPHABET {Alphabet Fra7ifais). 





NAMES. 


LETTERS. 








FRENCH. 


ENGLISH. 


a, 


a. 


ah. 


b, 


be. 


bay. 


c, 


ce. 


say. 


d, 


de. 


day. 


e, 


e, 


a. 


f. 


elf. 


^/ 


g. 


je. 


zjay. 


h. 


asb. 


ash. 


i, 


i. 


ee. 


., 


ji. 


zjee. 


k. 


ka, 


kah. 


1, 


el. 


el. 


m, 


em. 


em. 


n, 


en. 


en. 


o. 


o. 


0. 


p. 


pe, 


pay. 


q» 


qu. 


qu. 


r. 


er. 


heir. 


s. 


ess. 


ess. 


t, 


te. 


tay. 


u, 


u, 


u. 


V, 


ve. 


vay. 


X, 


iks. 


eeks. 


y» 


i-grec. 


ee-grec. 


z, 


zed. 


zed. 



CHAPTER I. 



VERBS. 



As the verbs play such an important part in the language, 
they are placed first. The pupil should learn to recite them 
with the corresponding person in Enghsh, inverting the order, 
etc., so as to become familiar with them.-^ 

There are, in French, two auxiliary verbs : avoir^ to have, 
and etre, to be. They are auxiliary verbs, as in English, only 
when they are used in the formation of compound tenses. 



Conjugation of AVOIR — to have. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. | Past. 

Avoir, to have. Avoir eu, io have had. 



Ayant, 



Present. 



Ayant eu, 



PARTICIPLES. 

having. \ Eu, m. eue, y"., 

Compound. 

having had. 



Past. 



had. 



J'ai, 
Tu as, 
II (elle) a, 
Nous avons, 
Vou2 avez, 
lis (elles) ont, 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present. Past Indefinite. 

/ have. J'ai eu, / have had. 

thou hast. Tu as eu, thou hast had. 

he has. 11 a eu, he has had. 

•we have. Nous avons eu, we have had. 

you have. Vous avez eu, you have had. 



they have. 



lis ont eu, 



they have had. 



1 Let the teacher be very strict on this point, 
any other matter until the verbs are well known. 



He should not pass to 



VERBS. 



Imperfect. 



J'avais, 
Tu avais, 
II avait, 
Nous avions, 
Vous aviez, 
lis avaient. 



Past Definite. 



J'eus, 
Tu eus, 
II eut, 

Nous eumes, 
Vous eutes, 
lis eurent, 



J'aurai, 
Tu auras, 
II aura, 
Nous aurons, 
Vous aurez, 
lis auront, 



Future. 



I had. 

thou hadst. 

he had. 

we had. 

yo7i had. 

they had. 



I had. 

thou hadst. 

he had. 

•we had. 

yoti had. 

they had. 



I shall have, 
thou wilt have. 

he will have, 
we shall have, 
you will have, 
they will have. 



Pluperfect. 



J'avais eu, 
Tu avais eu, 
II avait eu. 
Nous avions eu, 
Vous aviez eu, 
lis avaient eu, 



I hud had. 

thou hadst had. 

he had had. 

we had had. 

you had had. 

they had had. 



Past Anterior. 

J'eus eu, I had had. 

Tu eus eu, thou hadst had. 

11 eut eu, he had had. 

Nous eumes eu, lue had had. 

Vous eutes eu, you had had. 

lis eurent eu, they had had. 



Future Anterior. 



J'aurai eu, 
Tu auras eu, 
II aura eu, 
Nous aurons eu, 
Vous aurez eu, 
lis auront eu. 



I shall have had. 
thou wilt have had. 
he will have had. 
we shall have had. 
you will have had. 
they will have had. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



J'aurais, 
Tu aurais, 
II aurait, 
Nous aurions, 
Vous auriez, 
lis auraient. 



Present. 

I should have. 

thou wouldst have. 

he would have. 

we should have. 

you would have. 



they would have. lis auraient eu 



J'aurais eu, 
Tu aurais eu, 
II aurait eu, 
Nous aurions eu, 
Vous auriez eu. 



Past. 

I should have had. 

thou wouldst have had. 

he would have had. 

we should have had. 

you would have had. 

they would have had. 



Aie, 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

I Ayons, 
have (thou). I Ayez, 



let us have, 
have {you). 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present. 

Que j'aie, that I may have. 

Que tu aies, that thou mayst have. 

Qu'il ait, that he may have. 

Que nous ayons, that we may have. 

Que vous ayez, that you may have. 

Qu'ils aient, that they may have. 



Past. 

Que j'aie eu, that I may 

Que tu aies eu, that thou mayst 

Qu'il ait eu, that he may 

Que nous ayons eu, that we may 

Que vous ayez eu, that you may 

Qu'ils aient eu, that they may 



Imperfect. 




Quej'eusse, 


that I ■ 




Que tu eusses, 


that thou 


Qu'il eut. 


that he, she, it 


Que nous eussions, 


that we 


Que vous eussiez. 


that you, ye 


Qu'ils eussent. 


that they , 


^ 


Pluperfect. 


? 


Que j'eusse eu. 


that /■ 


(§• 


Que tu eusses eu, 


that thou 


1 »• 


Qu'il eut eu. 


that he, etc. 




Que nous eussions eu, 


that we 


Que vous eussiez eu. 


that you 




Qu'ils eussent eu. 


that they . 


p. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



II 



Etre, 



Coiijugration of ETRE — to be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
to be. ' Avoir dte, 



Present. 



Past. 



to have been. 



Etant, 



Present. 



Ayant ete, 



PARTICIPLES. 

being. \ Ete, 
Compound. 



Past. 



been. 



having been. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Past Indefinite. 



Je suis, 


I am. 


J'ai et^, 


/ have been. 


Tu es, 


thou art. 


Tu as ete, 


thou hast been. 


11 est. 


he is. 


11 a ete, 


he has been. 


Nous sommes, 


we are. 


Nous avons ^t^, 


we have been. 


Vous etes. 


you are. 


Vous avez ete, 


you have been. 


lis sont, 


they are. 


lis ont ete. 


they have been. 


Imperfect. 




Pluperfect. 


J'etais, 


I was. 


J'avais ete. 


I had been. 


Tu etais, 


thou wast. 


Tu avals ete, 


thou hadst been. 


11 etait. 


he was. 


11 avait ^te. 


he had been. 


Nous etions, 


we were. 


Nous avions ete. 


•we had been. 


Vous etiez, 


yo7i were. 


Vous aviez ete, 


you had been 


lis etaient, 


they ivere. 


lis avaient ete, 


they had been. 


Past Definite. 




Past Anterior. 


Je fus, 


I was. 


J'eus dte. 


I had been 


Tu fus, 


thou wast. 


Tu eus ete, 


thou hadst been 


11 fut, 


he was. 


11 eut ^te, 


he had been 


Nous fumes. 


7ve were. 


Nous eumes etd. 


we had been 


Vous futes. 


you were. 


Vous eutes ^t^. 


you had been 


lis furent. 


they were. 


lis eurent ete. 


they had been 


Future. 




Future 


Anterior. 


Je serai, 
Tu seras, 
11 sera, 
Nous serons, 
Vous serez, 
lis seront, 


I shall be. 
thou wilt be. 
he nvill be. 
•we shall be. 
you "will be. 
they will be. 


J'aurai et^, 
Tu auras ete, 
11 aura ete. 
Nous aurons etd, 
Vous aurez ete, 
lis auront ete. 


I shall have been 

tho7i ivilt have been 

he will have been 

we shall have beeti 

you will have been 

they will have been 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



Je serais, 
Tu serais, 
II serait, 
Nous serious, 
Vous seriez, 
lis serajcnt. 



Present. 



I should be. 

thou wouldst be. 

he would be. 

we should be. 

you ivould be. 

they would be. 



J'aurais ^te, 
Tu aurais ete, 
II aurait ete. 
Nous aurions et^, 
Vous aunez ete, 
lis auraient et6. 



Past. 

/ should have been. 

thou wouldst have been. 

he would have been. 

we should have been. 

you would have been. 

they would have been. 



12 



VERBS. 



Sois, 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

I Soyons, 
be {thou). I Soyez, 



let us be. 

be (yott). 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Queje sois, 
Que tu sois, 
Qu'il soil, 
Que nous soyons. 
Que vous soyez, 
Qu'ils soient, 



Present. 

that I may be. 

that thou mayst be. 

that he may be. 

that we tnay be. 

that you may be. 

that they may be. 



Que j'aie dtd. 
Que tu aies el^, 
Qu'il ait 6i€, 
Que nous ayons dte 
Que vous ayez et^, 
Qu'ils aient ete, 



Past. 

that I may 1 

that thou mayst 

that he may 

that we may 

that you m.ay 

that they may ^ 



Imperfect. 



Que je fusse, 
Que tu fusses, 
Qu'il fut. 

Que nous fussions, 
Que vous fussiez, 
Qu'ils fussent, 



that I might be. 

that thou mightst be. 

that he might be. 

that we might be. 

that you might be. 



Pluperfect. 
Que j'eusse ^te, that I might '\ 

Que tu eusses ete, that thou mightst 
Qu'il eut ete, that he viight 

Que nous eussions et^, that we might 
Que vous eussiez ete, that you might 



that they might be. I Qu'ils eussent et^, that they might 



Regular Verbs. 

There are, in French, four regular conjugations, distin- 
guished by the ending of the present infinitive : first conjuga- 
tion, er\ second, ir\ third, oir-, fourth, re. 

There are three voices in French : active, passive, reflective. 
The compound tenses of the active voice are formed in 
French, as in English, by the auxiUary to have and the past 
participle of a verb. 

First Conjugation, In Er. 
COUPER — to cut, (3Iodel Verb,) 



Couper, 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. | Past. 

to cut. I Avoir coupe, to have cut. 



Coupant, 



PARTICIPLES. 
cutting. I Coupd, cut. \ Ayant coupe, having cut. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



13 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Je coupe, 

Tu coupes, 

II (elle) coupe, 

Nous coupons, 

Vous coupez, 

lis (elles) coupent, 



I cut. 

thou cuttest. 

he, she, it cjits. 

we cut. 

you cut. 

they cut. 



Je coupais, 
Tu coupais, 
II coupait. 
Nous coupions, 
Vous coupiez, 
lis coupaient, 



Imperfect. 

/ was cutting. 

thou wast cutting. 

he was cutting. 

we were cutting. 

you were cutting. 

they were cutting. 



Past Definite. 



Je coupai, 
Tu coupas, 
II coupa, 
Nous coupimes, 
Vous coupates, 
lis coup^rent, 



Je couperai, 
Tu couperas, 
II coupera, 
Nous couperons, 
Vous couperez, 
lis couperont, 



Future. 



I cut. 

thou cuttedst. 

he cut. 

we cut. 

you cut. 

they cut, 

I shall C7it. 
thou wilt cut. 
he will cut. 
we shall C7it. 
you will cut. 
they will cut. 



Past Indefinite. 



J'ai coup^, 
Tu as coup^, 
II (elle) a coup^, 
Nous avons coup^, 
Vous avez coup^, 



I have cut, 

thou hast cut. 

he, she, it has cut. 

we have cut. 

you have cut. 



lis (elles) ont coupd, they have cut 



Pluperfect. 



J'avais coup^, 
Tu avais coupd, 
II avait coup^. 
Nous avions coupd, 
Vous aviez coupe, 
lis avaient coup^, 



I had cut. 

thou hadst cut. 

he had cut. 

we had cut. 

you had cut. 

they had cut. 



Past Anterior. 



J'eus coup^, 
Tu eus coup^, 
II eut coupd, 
Nous eumes coup^, 
Vous eutes coup^, 
lis eurent coup^, 



I had cut. 

thou hadst cut. 

he had cut. 

we had cut. 

you had cut. 

they had cut. 



Future Anterior. 



J'aurai coup^, 
Tu auras coupd, 
11 aura coup6, 
Nous aurons coupd, 
Vous aurez coupd, 
lis auront coupe, 



I shall 
thoti wilt 

he will 
we shall 
you will 
they will , 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



Present. 

Je couperais, I should cut. 

Tu couperais, thou wouldst cut. 

II couperait, he would cut. 

Nous couperions, we should cut. 

Vous coupertez, you would cjtt. 

lis couperaient, they would cut. 



Past. 



J'aurais coup^, 
Tu aurais coup^, 
II aurait coupd, 
Nous aurions coup^, 
Vous auriez coupe, 
lis auraient coup^. 



/ should " 

thou wouldst 

he would 

we should 

yo7( would 

they would J 



Coupe, 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

I Coupons, 
Coupez, 



let us cut. 
{cut yon). 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Que je coupe, 
Que tu coupes, 
Qu'il coupe. 
Que nous coupions. 
Que vous coupiez, 
Qu'ils coupent. 



that I may cut. 

that thou i7iayst ctit. 

that he may cut. 

that we may cut. 

that you may cut. 

that they may cut. 



Past. 
Que j'aie coup^, that T may 

Que tu aies coup^, that thou mayst 
Qu'il ait coupd, that he may 

Que nous ayons coupd, that we may 
Que vous ayez coupe, that you may 
Qu'ils aient coupe, that they may ^ 



14 



VERBS. 



Imperfect. 
Que je coupasse, that I might cut. 

Que tu coupasses, that thou mightest cut. 
Qu'il coupat, that he might cut. 

Que nous coupassions, that we might cut. 
Que vous coupassiez, that you might C7it. 
Qu'ils coupassent, that they might cut. 



Pluperfect. 
Que j'eusse coupe, that I might ' 

Que tu eusses coupe, that thou mightest 
Qu'il eut coup^, that he might 

Que nous eussions coupd, that we might 
Que vous eussiez coupe, that yojt might 
Qu'ils eussent coupd, that they might 



Second Conjugation, in Ir. 
FINIB — to finish. iModel Verb.) 

infinitive mode. 



Present. 



Finir, 



I Past. 

to finish. I Avoir fini, to have finished. 



Present. 



Finissant, 



PARTICIPLES. 



finishing. I Fini, 



Past. 



finished. 



Compound. 
Ayant fini, having finished. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Je finis, 

Tu finis, 

II finit. 

Nous finissons, 

Vous finissez, 

lis finissent, 



I finish. 

tkoufi7iishest. 

he finishes. 

we finish. 

you finish. 

they finish. 



J'ai fini, 
Tu as fini, 
II a fini. 
Nous avons fini 
Vous avez fini, 
lis ont fini. 



Past Indefinite. 

/ have finished. 



thou hast finished. 

he has finished. 

we havefitiished. 

you have finished. 

they have finished. 



Imperfect. 



Je finissais, 
Tu finissais, 
11 finissait. 
Nous finisslons, 
Vous finissiez, 
lis finissaient. 



/ was finishing. 

thou -wast finishing. 

he was finishing. 

we were finishing. 

you were finishing. 

they were finishirig. 



Pluperfect. 



J'avais fini, 
Tu avais fini, 
II avait fini, 
Nous avions fini, 
Vous aviez fini, 
lis avaient fini. 



/ had finished. 

thou hadstfiiiished. 

he had finished. 

we had finished. 

you had finished. 

they had finished. 



Past Definite. 

Je finis, Ifitiished. 

Tu finis, thou fif lis hedst. 

11 finit, he finished. 

Nous fintmes, -we finished. 

Vous finites, you finished. 

lis finirent, they finished. 



Past Anterior. 



J'eus fini, 
Tu eus fini, 
II eut fini, 
Nous eumes fini, 
Vous eutes fini, 
lis eurent fini. 



/ had finished. 

thou hadstfiftished. 

he had finished. 

we had finished. 

you had finished. 

they had finished. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



IS 



Future. 



Future Anterior. 



Je finirai, 


I shall finish. 


J'aurai fini, 


Ishair 


*. 


Tu finiras, 


than wilt finish. 


Tu auras fini, 


thou wilt 


<a 


11 finira, 


he ivill finish. 


11 aura fini, 


he will 


5. 


Nous finirons, 


•we shall fijtish. 


Nous aurons fini. 


we shall 


Vous finirez. 


yon will finish. 


Vous aurez fini. 


you will 


»« 


lis finiront, 


they will finish. 


lis auront fini. 


they will . 


?- 




CONDITIONAL MODE. 








Present. 




Past. 




Je finirais, 


/ sho7(ld finish . 


J'aurais fini. 


I should 


St. 


Tu finirais. 


thou wouldst finish. 


Tu aurais fini, 


thou wouldst 


1 


11 finirait, 


he would finish. 


11 aurait fini. 


he would 


> 


Nons finirions, 


we should fitiish. 


Nous aurions fini. 


we should 


s 


Vous finiriez, 


you would finish. 


Vous auriez fini. 


you -would 


S^ 


lis finiraient, 


they would finish. 
IMPERATI 


lis auraient fini, 
VE MODE. 


they would j 


.^ 






Finissons, 


let us finish. 


Finis, 


finish {thou). 


Finissez, 


finish {you). 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Que je finisse. 
Que tu finisses, 
Qu'il finisse. 
Que nous finissions. 
Que vous finissiez, 
Qu'ils finissent. 



that I may 'j 

that thou viayst 

that he may 

that we may 

that you may I 

that they may J 



^ 



Past. 



Que j'aie fini, 
Que tu aies fini, 
Qu'il ait fini, 
Que nous ayons fini, 
Que vous ayez fini, 
Qu'ils aient fini. 



that I may 

that thou mayst 

that he may 

that we may 

that yo7i jnay I *> 

that they fnay J fi. 



.^ 



Imperfect. 
Que je finisse, that I might ") 

Que tu finisses, that thou mightest I 
Qu'il finit, that he tnight ! 

Que nous finissions, that we might ( 
Que vous finissiez, that you might | 
Qu'ils finissent, that they might J 



^ 



Pluperfect. 
Que j'eusse fini, that / jnight '\ 

Que tu eusses fini, that thou mightest 
Qu'il eut fini, that he might ! 

Que nous eussions fini, that we tnight 1 
Que vous eussiez fini, that you tnight \ 
Qu'ils eussent fini, that they might J 



Third Conjugation, in Oir. 
RECEVOin — to receive. {Model Verb.) 

INFINITIVE MODE. 



Recevoir, 



Present. 



Present. 



Recevant, 



to receive. \ Avoir regu, 
PARTICIPLES. 

receiving. \ Requ, 
Compound. 



Past. 



Past. 



to have received. 



received 



Ay ant rc^u, 



ing received. 

* 



i6 



VERBS. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Je re^ois, 
Tu re^ois, 
II re^oit, 
Nous recevc^s, 
Vous recevez, 
lis re^oivent. 



/ receive. 

thou receivest. 

he receives. 

we receive. 

you receive. 

they receive. 



J'ai requ, 
Tu as re^u, 
II a re^u, 
Nous avons re^u, 
Vous avez re^u, 
lis ont regu, 



Past Indefinite. 

I have received, 
thou hast received. 

he has received. 

•we have received. 

you have received. 

they have received. 



Je recevais, 
Tu recevais, 
II recevait, 
Nous recevions, 
Vous receviez, 
lis recevaient, 



Imperfect. 

I was receivittg: 

thou wast receiving. 

he ivas receiving. 

we were receiving. 

you were receiving. 

they were receiving. 



Pluperfect. 



J'avais requ, 
Tu avais re^u, 
II avail regu. 
Nous avions re^u, 
Vous aviez re^u, 
lis avaient re9u, 



/ had received. 

hou hadst received. 

he had received. 

we had received. 

you had received. 

they had received. 



Past Definite. 

Je re^us, / received. 

Tu re9us, thou receivedst. 

11 re^ut, he received. 

Nous resumes, we received. 

Vous refutes, you received. 

lis rcQurent, they received. 



J'eus re^u, 
Tu eus re^u, 
11 eut regu, 
Nous eumes re^u 
Vous eutes re^u, 
lis eurent re^u, 



Past Anterior. 

/ had received. 

thou hadst received. 

he had received. 

we had received. 

you had received. 

they had received. 



Future. 

Je recevrai, I shall receive. 

Tu recevras, thou wilt receive. 

II recevra, he will receive. 

Nous recevrons, we shall receive. 

Vous recevrez, you will receive. 

lis recevront, they will receive. 



J'aurai re9u, 
Tu auras re9u, 
II aura re9vi, 
Nous aurons re9u 
Vous aurez re9u, 
lis auront re9u, 



Future Anterior. 

/ shall have ^ 
thou wilt have 
he will have 
we shall have 
you will have 
they will have , 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



Present. 



Je recevrais, 
Tu recevrais, 
II recevrait, 
Nous recevrions, 
Vous recevriez, 
lis recevraient, 



I should receive. 

thou wouldst receive. 

he wojtld receive. 

we should receive. 

you would receive. 

they would receive. 



Past. 



J'aurais re9u, 
Tu aurais re9u, 
II aurait re9u, 
Nous aurions re9u, 
Vous auriez re9u, 
lis auraient re9u. 



/ should 

thou ivouldst 

he would 

we should 

you would 

they would . 



Re9ois, 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



I Recevons, 
receive {thou). \ Recevez, 



let us recei^ie. 
receive {you). 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



17 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present. 






Que je regoive, 


that I • 


S 


Que tu resolves, 


that thou 




Qu'il resolve, 


that he 


■| 


Que nous recevions, 


that we 


Que vous receviez, 


that you 


S 


Qu'ils re9oivent, 


that they . 


? 


Imperfect. 






Queje re^usse, 


that I- 


s 


Que tu re9usses, 


that thou 


t 


Qu'il re9ut, 


that he 


1 


Que nous regussions, 


that we 


Que vous rei^ussiez, 


that you 


"Tl 


Qu'ils re9ussent, 


that they . 



Past. 



Que j'aie regu, 
Que tu aies rei,u, 
Qu'il ait re^u, 
Que nous ayons re<;u, 
Que vous ayez re9u, 
Qu'ils aient re^u, 



that I •\ 

that thou 

that he \ 

that we f 

that you 

that they J 



Pluperfect. 



Que j'eusse re9u 
Que tu eusses re9u 
Qu'il eut re5u 
Que nous eussions rei^u 
Que vous eussiez reju, 
Qu'ils eussent re^u, 



that I 

that thou 

that he 

that we 

that you 

that they 



R.3 






Vendre, 



Fourth Conjugation, in Re. 
VENDUE — to sell, {Model Verb.) 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

I Past. 

to sell. I Avoir vendu, to have sold. 



Present. 



Vendant, 



Present. 



PARTICIPLES. 



selling. I Vendu, 



Past. 



sold. 



Compound. 
Ayant vendu, having sold. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Je vends, 
Tu vends, 
II vend. 
Nous vendons, 
Vous vendez, 
lis vendent. 



I sell. 

thou sellest. 

he sells. 

we sell. 

you sell. 

they sell. 



Imperfect. 

Je vendais, / was selling. 

Tu vendais, tho7i wast selling. 

II vendait, he was selling. 

Nous vendions, we were selling. 

Vous vendiez, you were selling. 

lis vendaient, they were selling. 



Past Indefinite. 

J'ai vendu, / have sold. 

Tu as vendu, thou hast sold. 

II a vendu, he has sold. 

Nous avons vendu, "we have sold. 

Vous avez vendu, yoti have sold. 

lis ont vendu, they have sold. 



Pluperfect, 



J'avais vendu, 
Tu avais vendu, 
II avail vendu, 
Nous avions vendu, 
Vous aviez vendu, 
lis avaient vendu, 



I had sold. 

thou hadst sold. 

he had sold. 

we had sold. 

you had sold. 

they had sold. 



VERBS. 



Past Definite. 

Je vendis, / sold. 
Tu vendis, thou soldest. 

II vendit, he sold. 

Nous veiidimes, ive sold. 

Vous vendites, yott sold. 

lis vendirent, they sold. 



J'eus vendu, 
Tu eus vendu, 
II eut vendu. 
Nous eumes vendu 
Vous eutes vendu, 
lis eurent vendu, 



Past Anterior. 

/ had sold. 

thou hndst sold. 

he had sold. 

we had sold. 

you had sold. 

they had sold. 



Future. 



Je vendrai, 
Tu vendras, 
II vendra, 
Nous vendrons, 
Vous vendrez, 
lis vendront, 



/ shall sell, 
thou -wilt sell, 
he will sell, 
we shall sell, 
you will sell, 
they will sell. 



Future Anterior. 
J'aurai vendu, I shall' 



Tu auras vendu, 
II aura vendu, 
Nous aurons vendu, 
Vous aurez vendu, 
lis auront vendu, 



thou wilt 

he will 

we shall 

you will 

they will ^ 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



Present. 

Je vendrais, / should sell. 

Tu vendrais, thoti wouldst sell. 

II vendrait, he would sell. 

Nous vendrions, we would sell. 

Vous vendriez, you would sell. 

lis vendraient, they would sell. 



Past. 



J'aurais vendu 
Tu aurais vendu, 
11 aurait vendu, 
Nous aurions vendu, 
Vous auriez vendu, 
lis auraient vendu, 



I should 

thou wouldst 

he would 

we should 

you would 

they would ^ 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Vends 



I Vendons, 
sell {thou). I Vendez, 



let us sell, 
sell (you). 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Queje vende. 
Que tu vendes, 
Qu'il vende, 
Que nous vendions, 
Que vous vendiez, 
Qu'ils vendent, 



that 1 7nay sell. 

that thou mayst sell. 

that he may sell. 

that we may sell. 

that you viay sell. 

that they may sell. 



Past. 



Quej'aie vendu, that I tnay 

Que tu aies vendu, that thou mayst 
Qu'il ait vendu, that he may 

Que nous ayons vendu, that we may 
Que vous ayez vendu, that yott may 
Qu'ils aient vendu, that they may ^ 



Imperfect. 
Que je vendisse, that I might sell. 

Que tu vendisses, that thou mightest sell. 
Qu'il vendit, that he might sell. 

Que nous vendis'^ions, that we might sell. 
Que vous vendissiez, that you might sell. 
Qu'ils vendissent, that they might sell. 



Pluperfect. 

Que j'eusse vendu, that I viight "| 

Que tu eusses vendu, that thou mightest "^ 
Qu'il eut vendu, that he might I ^ 

Que nous eussions vendu, that we might ' t. 
Que vous eussiez vendu, that you might 
Qu'ils eussent vendu, that they might 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



19 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

In the passive voice the auxiliary to be is used in the simple 
tenses with the past participle of an active verb, and in the 
compound tenses the auxiliary to have is used with the past 
participles of to be and another verb. In the passive voice the 
past participle agrees in gender and number with the subject 
of the verb. 

CONJUGATION OF THE 

Passive Verb I:TRE COUrE, {Model Verb,) 

INFINITIVE MODE, 



Present. 




Past. 




Etre coup^, coupee, 




to be cut. 


Avoir ete coupe, coupee. 


to have been 


coupes, coupees, 






coupes, coupees, 


cut. 






PARTICIPLES. 




Present. 




Past. 




Etant coupe-ee, 




being cut. 


Coupe-ee, 


cut. 


coupes-^es, 






coupes-des, 








Compound. 






Ayant ^t^ coupe-ee, 
coupes-^« 


[ haviftg been cut. 
;s,) 





INDICATIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Je suis 
Tu es 
II est 

Nous sommes 
Vous etes 
lis sont 




Past ] 


NDEFINITE. 






J'ai 6X.6 






n 


s 


Tu as 6t6 








1^ 


11 a et^ 

Nous avons dte 









.r 

s 
2 


Vous avez 
lis out et6 


€t6 




4 
1. 


^ 
^ 



20 



VERBS. 



Imperfect. 



J'^tais 
Tu etais 
II dtait 

Nous dtions 
Vous etiez 
lis etaient 



■I X) 
1 n>> 



IS! J 



Pluperfect. 



J'avais 6t6 
Tu avais ^t^ 
II avait et^ 

Nous avions et^ 
Vous aviez ^t^ 
lis avaient 6t6 



Past Definite. 



Je fus 
Tu fus 
II fut 

Nous fumes 
Vous futes 
lis furent 



Past Anterior. 



J'eus ^te 
Tu eus etd 
II eut et^ 

Nous eumes ^t^ 
Vous eutes 6t6 
lis eurent 6t6 



n I 



Future. 



Je serai 
Tu seras 
11 sera 

Nous serons 
Vous serez 
lis seront 







Future Anterior. 




ol 




J'aurai dte 


(1 

15 


o 

c 

1 




Tu auras 6t6 
II aura 6t6 




.^ 






8 

c 




Nous aurons 6t6 


1 


?^ 


J?" 


Vous aurez ^te 


'I 


t. 




lis auront ^t^ 


1' 



Je serais 
Tu serais 
11 serait 

Nous serions 
Vous seriez 
11 seraient 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 



J'aurais ^te 
Tu aurais ^t^ 
II aurait ^t^ 



>? 



h. ^ 



Past. 



Nous aurions ^t^ 
Vous auriez 6t6 
lis auraient ^te 






n I 
(11 J 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



21 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Sois coup6-6e, 



Present. 



Que je sois 
Que tu sois 
Qu'il soit 

Que nous soyons 
Que vous soyez 
Qu'ils soient 



ie thou cut. 



Imperfect. 



Que je fusse 
Que tu fusses 
Qu'il fut 

Que nous fussions 
Que vous fussiez 
Qu'ils fussent 



Soyons 
Soyez 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 





< 


ol 




o 




c 


^ 


T) 


& 


7^ 




k 


s 




. i 




'^ 


o 

o 

c 


^ 


►o 


<^ 


fN 


s 






s- 




2 J 





coup^s-^es 



Past. 



let us be cut. 
be ye cut. 



Que j'aie €%.€ 


■^ ■ 




Que tu aies ^t^ 
Qu'il ait ^t^ 


■| 




Que nous ayons ^t^ 


fs 




c 


' fe. 


Que vous ayez ^t^ 




ft 


Qu'ils aient €\.i 




Pluperfect. 






Que j'eusse i\.€ 


O 






O 


,_ 


Que tu eusses ^t^ 


c 




Qu'il eut €xi 


M 


it 


Que nous eussions €x& 


'g 




e 


s« 


Que vous eussiez dtd 


■ »• 


1 


Qu'ils eussent ^t^ 


li-J 





Reflective Verbs. 

Reflective verbs have the active form in the simple tenses, 
and the passive form in the compound tenses. 

CONJUGATION OF THE PRONOMINAL VERB 

SE COUPER — to cut one's self, (Model Verb*) 



Se couper, 



Present. 

to cut one's self. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

I Past. 

S'etre coup^-^e, to have cut one's self. 



Se coupant. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Present. 

cutting one's self. 



Past. 



Coup^-^e, 

Compound. 
S'^tant coup^-^e, having cut one's self. 



22 



VERBS. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



Je me coupe, 
Tu te coupes, 
II se coupe, 
Nous nous coupons 
Vous vous coupez, 
lis se coupent, 



Present. 

/ cut myself, etc. 



Past Indefinite. 



Je me suis coup^, 

Tu t'es coup^, 

11 s'est coupe, 

Nous nous sommes coupes, 

Vous vous etes coupes, 

11 se sont coupes. 



/ have cut myself, 
[etc. 



Imperfect. 
Je me coupais, / was cutting myself, 



Tu te coupais, 
II se coupait, 
Nous nous coupions, 
Vous vous coupiez, 
lis se coupaient. 



[etc. 



Pluperfect. 
Je m'^tais coupd, / had cut myself, ci 
Tu t'etais coupd, 
11 s'etait coupe. 
Nous nous etions coupes, 
Vous vous ^tiez coupes, 
lis s'dtaient coupes. 



Je me coupai, 

Tu te coupas, 

II se coupa, 

Nous nous coupames, 

Vous vous coupates, 

lis se couperent. 



Past Definite. 

I cut myself, etc. 



Je me fus coupe, 

Tu te fus coupe, 

11 se fut coupe, 

Nous nous fumes coupes 

Vous vous futes coupes, 

lis se furent coupes. 



Past Anterior. 

/ had cut myself, etc. 



Future. 
Je me couperai, / shall cut myself, etc. 
Tu te couperas, 
11 se coupera, 
Nous nous couperons, 
Vous vous couperez, 
lis se couperoilt. 



Future Anterior. 
Je me serai coupe, / shall have cut 



Tu te seras coupd, 

II se sera coupe, 

Nous nous serons coupes, 

Vous vous serez coupes, 

lis se seront coupes. 



[myself, etc. 



Je me couperais, 
Tu te couperais, 
II se couperait, 
Nous nous couperions, 
Vous vous couperiez, 
lis se couperaient. 



CONDITIONAL MODE. 

Present. Past. 

Je me serais coupe, / should have cut 



I shotild cut myself, 
[etc. 



Tu te serais coup^, 
II se serait coupe. 
Nous nous serious coupes, 
Vous vous seriez coupes, 
lis se seraient coupes. 



[myself, etc. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



Coupe-toi, 



I Coupons-nous, 
cut thyself. I Coupez-vous, 



let us cut ourselves, 
cut yourselves. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



23 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



Present. 



Que je me coupe, that I may cut my self t 

Que tu te coupes, \_etc. 

Qu'il se coupcy 

Que nous nous coupions. 

Que vous vous coupiez, 

Qu'ils se coupent. 

Imperfect. 
Que je me coupasse, that I viight cut tny- 



Que tu te coupasses, 
Qu'il se coupat, 
Que nous nous coupassions, 
Que vous vous coupassiez, 
Qu'ils se coupassent. 



[self, etc. 



Past. 



Que je me sois coup^, that I may have cut 

Que tu te sois coup^, ["ly^el/, etc. 

Qu'il se soit coupe, 

Que nous nous soyons coupes. 

Que vous vous soyez coupes, 

Qu'ils se soient coupes. 

Pluperfect. 
Que je me fusse coupd, that I might have 
Que tu te fusses coupd, [r«/ myself ^ etc. 
Qu'il se iut coup^. 
Que nous nous fussions coupes. 
Que vous vous fussiez coupes, 
Qu'ils se fussent coupes. 



Ways of Conjugating-. 

Verbs may be conjugated affirmatively, interrogatively, or 
negatively. 

Affirmatively, as we have studied them thus far. 

Interrogatively, in the simple tenses, when the subject is 
placed after the verb ; or after the auxiliary, in the compound 
tenses : Coupe-je ? do I cut ? ai-je requ ? have I received ? 
rendrai-je? etc. In the passive form the subject is placed 
after the first auxiliary — Ai-je etefini? 

Notes. — i. In the first person singular of the present indicative of the 
first conjugation in the interrogative form, the acute (') accent is placed 
over the final silent e: je coupe — coupe-je? 

2. The interrogative form is not used in the first person singular of the 
present indicative of monosyllabic verbs. We do not say : Rends-je, sers- 
je, vis-je ; another turn must be given to the sentence: e.g., Est-ce que je 
rends? 

Negatively, when the verb is accompanied by a negative, as : 
Je ne coupe pas — I do not cut ; je n'ai pas Jini — I have not 
finished. 

Note. — The negative ne-pas (not) is divided into two parts, ne-pas, by 
a verb in the simple tenses, or by an auxiliary in the compound tenses, as: 
ye ne repots pas, je n^ aural pas vendu., je ne serai pas coupe, je n^aurais 
pas ete regu, etc. 

No model is given here ; but the pupil is expected to con- 
jugate verbs in the negative as well as in the interrogative form. 



24 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



CHAPTER II. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

There are two kinds of numeral adjectives : cardinal and 
ordinal. An ordinal is formed by adding ieme to a cardinal, 
as deux (two), deuxieme ; vingt (twenty), vingiieme, etc., except 
U7i (one), whose ordinal is premier, fem. premiere. But in 
compound numbers un follows the common rule : vingt-et- 



l*HU 


,f/l,C. 

Cardinal. 




Ordinal. 


I. 


\]T).,/em. une. 


ISt. 


Premier, /^/«. Premiere. 


2. 


Deux. 


2d. 


Deuxieme, or Second, 


3- 


Trois. . 


3d. 


Troisieme. [/. Seconde. 


4. 


Quatre. 


4th. 


Quatrieme. 


5- 


Cinq. 


Sth. 


Cinquieme. 


6. 


Six. 


6th. 


Sixieme. 


7. 


Sept. 


7th. 


Septieme. 


8. 


Huit. 


8th. 


Huitieme. 


9- 


Neuf. 


9th. 


Neuvieme. 


10. 


Dix. 


loth. 


Dixieme. 


II. 


Onze. 


nth. 


Onzieme. 


12. 


Douze. 


1 2th. 


Douzieme. 


13- 


Treize. 


13th. 


Treizieme. 


14. 


Quatorze. 


14th. 


Quatorzieme. 


15- 


Quinze. 


15th. 


Quinzieme. 


16. 


Seize. 


1 6th. 


Seizieme. 


17. 


Dix-sept. 


17th. 


Dix-septieme. 


18. 


Dix-huit. 


1 8th. 


Dix-huitieme. 


19. 


Dix-neuf. 


19th. 


Dix-neuvieme. 


20. 


Vingt. 


20th. 


Vingtieme. 


21. 


Vingt-et-un. 


2 1 St. 


Vingt-et-unieme. 


22. 


Vingt-deux. 


22d. 


Vingt-deuxieme. 



NUMERAL ADJFXTIVES. 



25 





Cardinal. 




Ordinal. 


23- 


Vingt-trois. 


23d. 


Vingt-troisieme. 


24. 


Vingt-quatre. 


24th. 


Vingt-quatrieme. 


25- 


Vingt-cinq. 


25th. 


Vingt-cinquieme. 


26. 


Vingt-six. 


26th. 


Vingt-sixieme. 


27. 


Vingt-sept. 


27th. 


Vingt-septieme. 


28. 


Vingt-huit. 


28th. 


Vingt-huitieme. 


29. 


Vingt-neuf, 


29th. 


Vingt-neuvieme. 


30- 


Trente. 


30th. 


Trentieme. 


31- 


Trente-et-un. 


31st. 


Trente et unieme. 


32. 


Trente-deux. 


32d. 


Trente-deuxieme. 


33- 


Trente-trois, etc. 


33d. 


Trente-troisieme, etc. 


40. 


Quarante. 


40th. 


Quarantieme. 


41. 


Quarante-et-iin. 


41st. 


Quarante et unieme. 


42. 


Quarante-deux. 


42d. 


Quarante-deuxieme. 


43- 


Quarante-trois, etc. 


43d. 


Quarante-troisieme, etc. 


50. 


Cinquante. 


50th. 


Cinquantieme. 


51. 


Cinquante et un. 


51st. 


Cinquante et unieme. 


52. 


Cinquante-deux. 


52d. 


Cinquante-deuxieme. 


53. 


Cinquante-trois, etc, 


53d. 


Cinquante-troisieme, etc 


60. 


Soixante. 


60th. 


Soixantieme. 


61. 


Soixante-et-un. 


6 1 St. 


Soixante et unieme. 


62. 


Soixante-deux. 


62d. 


Soixante-deuxieme. 


63- 


Soixante-trois, etc. 


63d. 


Soixante-troisieme, etc. 


70. 


Soixante-dix. 


70th. 


Soixante-dixieme. 


7r. 


Soixante-et-onze. 


71st. 


Soixante-et-onzieme. 


72. 


Soixante-douze. 


72d. 


Soixante-douzieme. 


73. 


Soixante-treize. 


73d. 


Soixante-treizieme. 


74. 


Soixante-quatorze. 


74th. 


Soixante-quatorzieme. 


75. 


Soixante-quinze. 


75tli. 


Soixante-quinzieme. 


76. 


Soixante-seize. 


76th. 


Soixante-seizieme. 


77- 


Soixante-dix-sept. 


77th. 


Soixante-dix-septieme. 


78. 


Soixante-dix-huit. 


78th. 


Soixante-dix-huitieme. 



26 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



Cardinal. 

79. Soixante-dix-neuf. 

80. Quatre-vingts. 

81. Quatre- vingt-un. 

82. Quatre-vingt-deux. 

83. Quatre-vingt-trois. 

84. Quatre-vingt-quatre. 

85. Quatre-vingt-cinq. 

86. Quatre-vingt-six. 

87. Quatre-vingt-sept. 

88. Quatre-vingt-huit. 

89. Quatre-vingt-neuf. 

90. Quatre-vingt-dix. 

91. Quatre-vingt-onze. 

92. Quatre -vingt-douze. 

93. Quatre-vingt-treize. 

94. Quatre-vingt-quatorze. 

95. Quatre-vingt-quinze. 

96. Quatre-vingt-seize! 

97. Quatre-vingt-dix-sept. 



79th. 

80th. 

8 1 St. 

82d. 

83d. 

84th. 

85th. 

86th. 

87th. 

88th. 

89th. 

90th. 

91st. 

92d. 

93d. 
94th. 

95th. 
96th. 
97th. 



98. Quatre-vingt-dix-huit. 98th. 

99. Quatre-vingt-dix-neuf. 99th. 



100. 


Cent. 


I 00th. 


lOI. 


Cent un. 


lOISt. 


200. 


Deux cents. 


200th. 


210. 


Deux-cent-dix. 


2I0th. 


1000. 


Mille. 


loooth. 


lOOI. 


Mille-un. 


lOOISt. 


2000. 


Deux mille. 


2000th. 



2500. Deux mille cinq cents. 2500th. 

3000. Trois mille. 3000th. 

1,000,000. Un million. 1,000, 000th. 



Ordinal. 
Soixante-dix-neuvieme. 
Quatre-vingtieme. 
Quatre-vingt-unieme. 
Quatre-vingt-deuxieme. 
Quatre-vingt-troisieme. 
Quatre-vingt-quatrieme. 
Quatre-vingt-cinquiemCc 
Quatre-vingt-sixieme. 
Quatre- vingt-septie m e . 
Quatre-vingt-huitieme. 
Quatre-vingt-neuvieme. 
Quatre-vingt-dixieme. 
Quatre-vingt-onzieme. 
Quatre -vingt-douzie me. 
Quatre-vingt-treizieme. 
Quatre - vingt - quator- 

zieme. 
Quatre-vingt-quinzieme. 
Quatre-vingt-seizieme. 
Quatre - vingt - dix - sep- 

tieme. 
Quatre - vingt 

tieme. 
Quatre - vingt 

vieme. 
Centieme. 
Cent-unieme. 
Deux-centieme. 
Deux-cent-dixieme. 
Millieme. 
Mille-unieme. 
Deux-millieme. 
Deux - mille - cinq - cen- 
tieme. 
Trois-millieme. 
Millionieme. 



dix - hui- 



dix - neu- 



V 



ARTICLES. 2/ 

Remarks. — Vingt and cent alone of the cardinal numbers 
take the sign of the plural, but only when placed last in a 
compound number, as : qicatre-vmgis, deux cents. When used 
to mark a certain epoch, they do not take the sign of the 
plural. 

Mille (one thousand) does not take the sign of the plural. 

Mil is the form used for dates of the Christian era, as : 
L'Am^rique a et^ decouverte en I'an mil quatre-cent quatre- 
vingt-douze (America was discovered in the year 1492). It 
does not take the form of the plural. 

Mille, signifying a measure of distance, takes the mark of 
the plural : Trois milks d'Angleterre font une lieue de France. 

In counting (in compound numbers), the smallest number 
is always placed last, as : Vingt-deux, trente-cinq, and never 
deux-et-vingt, cinq-et-trente, as is sometimes done in English. 

The conjunction et is used only before un in compound 
numbers, as : Vingt-et-un, vingt-deux ; trente-et-un, trente- 
deux, etc. Some substantives express the idea of number, and 
form three classes : — 

1 . Some express a certain quantity or collection : une 
douzaine, etc. 

2. Some express the parts of a whole : le tiers, le quart, etc. 

3. Some express the progressive increase : le double^ le 
triple^ etc. 

CHAPTER III. 

ARTICLES. 

There are in the French language two Articles, the definite 
and the indefinite. 

The definite article is le, masc, and la, fem. ; the indefinite 
is un, masc. ; une, fem. 



28 



ARTICLES. 



The article may be simple, elided, or contracted. 

Simple, as le, la. 

Elided, when e or a is replaced by an apostrophe, as; 
Phomjne for le homme ; Vorange (orange) for la orange. 

Contracted, when the article is united to one of the prepo- 
sitions de or a, as du for de le, au for a le. 

Elision takes place only in the singular, before a vowel or 
before a silent h, as : I' homme, r orange. 

Contraction always takes place in the genitive and dative 
plural; but in the singular, only in the masculine when the 
noun begins with a consonant or with h aspirate, as : du pain, 
au hero, for de le pain, a le hero. 

There are no declensions in French. The article, however, 
forms a quasi declension. 





Definite. 




Singular 




Plural. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Common to Both Genders. 


Nom. — Le or V 


La or 1' 


Les. 


Genit — Du or de 1' 


De la or de 1' 


Des. 


Dat. — Au <7r k le. 


A la <7r k 1' 


Aux. 


Accu. — Le or 1' 


La or 1' 


Les. 



AM. — Au, de, par le or \ A, de, par la or V A\ix, par les, des. 



Indefinite. 



Singular. 
Masculine. 
Nom. — Un (a, an). 
Genit. — D'un. 
Dat. — A un. 
Accu. — Un. 
Abl. — Par, d'un. 



Feminine. 
Une. 
D'une. 
A une. 
Une. 
Par, d'une. 



Plural. 
Common to Both Genders. 
Les. 
Des. 
Aux. 
Les. 
Aux, par les, des. 



Un, une is equivalent to the English indefinite article a, an. 
Le, la, les correspond to the definite article in English, as : 
I have seen a man reading a book — J'ai vu un homme lire 



SUBSTANTIVES. 29 

un livre. The man whom we met — L'homme que nous 
rencontrames. 

The article is always expressed in French, even when it is 
omitted in English, as : Men are condemned to death — Les 
hommes sont condamn^s a la mort. 



3>*<C 



CHAPTER IV. 

SUBSTANTIVES. 

A Substantive or Noun is the name of anything that exists, 
or of which we have any notion, as : London^ matiy virtue — 
Londres, homme, vertu. 

Substantives are either proper or common. 

Proper nouns or substantives are the names applied to 
individuals, as : George, London, Thames — Tamise. 

Common nouns or substantives stand for kinds containing 
many sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals under 
them, as : Animal, man, tree, etc. — Animal, homme, arbre. 

When proper nouns have an article annexed to them, they 
are used as common nouns, as : He is the Cicero of his age 
— II est le Cic^ron de son age. He is reading the lives of 
the Twelve Ccesars — II lit la vie des douze C^sars. 

Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, by 
the addition of articles or pronouns, as : The boy is studious 
— Le gargon est studieux. That girl is discreet — Cette fille 
est discrete. 

To substantives belong gender and number. 

Gender. 

There are only two genders in French : masculine and 
feminine. 



30 SUBSTANTIVES. 

A noun is of the masculine gender when it denotes a male 
or beings which are regarded as males, as : Man, Vhomvie ; 
sun, le soleil. 

A noun is of the feminine gender when it denotes a female 
or beings which are regarded as females, as : Woman, la 
femme; moon, la lune, etc. 

Practice and the use of dictionaries are about the only 
means of learning the gender of French nouns. 

Number. 

Number is that property of a substantive which shows 
whether one object is meant or more than one. Hence there 
are two numbers in French, as in English : the singular and 
plural. 

The singular denotes one, as : The man, rhomme ; le pain ; 
un livre ; the plural, more than one, as: Les maisons ; les 
jeux ; des enfants, etc. 

But there are common nouns which, though singular in 
form, are plural in meaning. They are called collective nouns. 

A collective noun presents to the mind several objects under 
the aspect of one, as : An army, une armee. 

There are two kinds, collective partitive and collective general. 

Partitive, if they represent but a part of the collection, as : 
A number of poor receive help — Un nombre de pauvres 
reqoivent des secours. They are generally preceded by un, 
une. 

General, when they represent the whole collection, as : 
L'armee est victorieuse. They are then always preceded by 
a determinative : le, la, les, ce, cet, cette, mon, ton, etc. 

A CERTAIN NUMBER of uouus are used only in the singular — 

I . Names of abstract qualities and vices, as : Bofiheur, 
vertu. 



/ 



^y 



SUBSTANTIVES. 3 1 

2. Names of metals and perfumes, as: Or, argent, parfum. 

3. Adjectives or verbs used as substantives. 

Nouns that express essentially the idea of several things are 
only used in the plural, as: Fian^ailles (betrothal), condo- 
leances, etc. 

Formation of the Plural. 

General Rule. — The plural is formed by adding s to 
the singular, as : Ville, plur. villes (city) ; enfant, enfants. 

Exceptions. — i. Singular nouns ending in s, x, z, have the 
same ending in the plural. 

2. Singular nouns ending in au, eau, eu, take x in the 
plural: fieau {^est), fieaux; neveu (nephew), neveux. 

3. The following seven nouns take x in the plural : bijou 
(jewel), caillou (pebble), chou (cabbage), genou (knee), 
hibou (owl), Joujou (toy), pou (louse). All other nouns 
ending in ou take s in the plural. 

4. Nouns ending in al change al into aux : animal, ani- 
maux. But the names of animals, as chacal i^]2sikA), take s in 
the plural, and so also do the following eight nouns : aval 
(security for payment), bal (ball), cat (callosity), cantal (a 
kind of cheese), carnaval (carnival), nopal (nopal-plant),/^/ 
(pale), regal (banquet). 

5. Seven nouns ending in ail change ail into aux in the 
plural: bail (lease), email (enamel), corail (coral), soupi- 
rail (air-hole), vantail (folding- door), vitrail (glass-window), 
travail (labor). But this last one follows the general rule, 
when it means trave, or a chief clerk's report. 

6. Ail (garlic) forms its plural either by adding s or by 
changing into aulx. Betail (cattle) has no plural, and bes- 
tiaux no singular. 

7. Ciel, ceil, dieul have two different forms in the plural, 
according to their signification. 



32 



SUBSTANTIVES. 



CieL 



(Eil, 



Aieulf 



' plural dels, means tester, canopy, roof of quarries, skies of a 
picture, climates; dels de lit (testers); dels de carriere (voois 

- of quarries); les dels de Raphael sont delicats ; la France est 
sous un des plus beaux dels du monde. 

[ Cieux in all its other meanings. 

f plural ails in all compound nouns beginning with osil, as: 

J ceils-de-bceuf (small windows having the form of a bull's eye) ; 

I ceils-de-chat. 

[ Plural yeux in all its other meanings. 

f plural aleuls, when it means grandfathers. 

\ Plural aieux in all its other meanings. 



Nouns Common to Both liang-uages. 

The following classes of nouns, chiefly derived from Latin, 
are common to both the French and the English language. 
Only a few of each class can be given. 



«/, 


mineral, 


general, 


principal. 


animal. 


CCy 


race, 


sacrifice, 


alliance, 


prudence 


de. 


parade, 


parricide, 


ode, 


prelude. 


g^y 


page, 


college. 


vestige. 


deluge. 


le, 


table, 


temple, 


file. 


vestibule. 


«<-, 


machine, 


doctrine, 


scene, 


famine. 


ant. 


instant, 


artisan, 


arrogant, 


pedant. 


ent. 


president, 


present, 


accident, 


resident. 


ion. 


question. 


creation, 


nation. 


intuition. 


ure. 


agriculture, 


creature, 


nature. 


culture. 



Others change but slightly in passing into French. 

Words ending in b, rb, d, rd, rm, sin, st, xt, x, add e in 
French, as : verbe, bipede, corde, forme, spasme, artiste, pre- 
texte, suffixe. 

Words ending in English in 

ary change into aire : dictionary, dictionnaire ; lapidary, lapidaire. 
ory change into aire : memory, tnemoire ; history, histoire. 
gy change into gie : effigy, effigie ; energy, energie ; geology, geologie. 
wry change into nee: clemency, clemence ; con%\.2.nzy, Constance ; urgency, 

urgence. 
ty change into te : liberty, liberie ; beauty, beaute ; charity, chariti. 



ADJECTIVES. 33 

y preceded by any other letter change into ie : flattery, Jlatterie ; fury, 

furie ; malady, maladie. 
ate 6to^ e : ca.ndid2ite, candidal ; senate, senaf ; prelate, ^re/at. 
an take i before n : American, americain ; republican, republicain. 
ian change a into e: Italian, italien; musician, musicien ; Parisian, 

parisien, 
er change into re: chamber, chambre ; amber, ainbre ; December, 

decei7tbre. 
ic change into ique : colic, colique ; logic, logique ; republic, republique. 
ine drop e : masculine, masculin ; clandestine, clandestin. 
ive change into if: massive, massif; active, actif 
or change into eur : superior, superieur ; candor, candeur ; actor, adeur. 



3>^C 



CHAPTER V. 

ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the meaning 
of a noun or pronoun. Hence there are two kinds of adjec- 
tives : qualifying and determinative adjectives. 

Qualifying" A^ectives. 

In French, as in English, there are two kinds of qualifying 
adjectives ; simple adjectives, as : good, bon ; great, grand; 
others derived from verbs, called verbal adjectives, which 
always end in a7it. 

A noun is sometimes used as an adjective ; but it is then 
used without an article or other determinative : He was a 
shepherd, and became king — // etait berger, et il devint roi. 

Formation of the Feminine. 

In French, adjectives agree with their nouns in number and 
gender. 

General Rule. — The feminine is formed by adding e to 
the masculine : vrai (true), vraie ; grand, grande, etc. 



34 



ADJECTIVES. 



This rule has ten exceptions. 

I. Adjectives ending in e in the masculine do not change, 



except : 


Maitre, traitre^ diable ; fem. 


mat tress e, traitrei 


diablesse. 








2. Adjectives ending in 






d 


«v 


tel, fem 


telle (such). 


eil 


double the 


pareil, " 


pareille (ahke). 


ien 


consonant 


. ancien, " 


ancienne (old). 


on 


and add e. 


bon. 


bonne (good). 


et 


. 


muet, " 


muette (dumb) 



But complef, concrete discrete secret^ inquiet, replet, follow the 
general rule. 

Nul^ gentily bellot (pretty, natty), sot, vieillot, pays an, bas, 
gras, las (tired), epais, gros, expres, pro/es, double the final 
consonant and add e. 

3. Adjectives ending in /change /into z;^.- vif, vive ; plaintif, 
plaintive. 

4. Adjectives ending in x change x into se : heureux, 
heureuse ; but doux, roux, faux, prefix form their feminine in 
douce, rousse, fausse, prefixe. 

Ju?neau, beau, nouveau, fou, mou, vieux, have in the femi- 
nine jumelle, belle, nouvelle, folk, molle, vieille. But the five 
last adjectives have bel, nouvel,fol, mol, vieil, in the masculine 
singular before a vowel or h mute : un bel enfant, un nouvel 
habit, le vieil homme. 



. Blanc 


(white) ; feminine 


, blanche. 


Franc 


(frank) ; 


a 


franche. 


Sec 


(dry); 


(( 


seche. 


Frais 


(fresh, delicate) ; 


(C 


fraiche. 


Ammoniac ; 




a 


ammoniaque 


Public ; 




({ 


publique. 


Malin 


(malicious) ; 


tt 


maUgne. 





ADJECTIVES. 




Coi 


(still, snug) ; feminint 


', coite. 


Tiers 


(third part) ; 


tierce. 


Caduc 


(decaying) ; " 


caduque. 


Turc 


(Turkish) ; 


turque. 


Grec j 


li 


grecque. 


Long; 


ti 


longue. 


Oblong ; 


(( 


oblongue. 


B^nin 


(benign) ; " 


b^nigne. 


Favori ; 


n 


favorite. 


Devin 


(soothsayer) ; " 


devineresse. 


Traitre 


(treacherous) : " 


traitresse. 



35 



6. Adjectives in eur^ derived from present participles, 
change r into se : chanteur, from chantant (singer) ; femi- 
nine, chanteuse. 

But bailleur (leaser), demandeur (plaintiff), defendeur 
(defender), vendeur (in the sense of practice), pecheur 
(sinner), vengeur (avenger), chasseur (hunter), have in the 
feminine resse : bailleresse, pecheresse, 

7. Adjectives in tetir, not derived directly from present 
participles, form their feminine in trice : createur^ creatrice ; 
accusateur, accusatrice^ etc. 

8. Adjectives in eur, indicating professions chiefly exercised 
by men, as docteur, auteur^ litterateur, professeur, remain un- 
changed in the feminine, but ambassadeur, gouverneur, servi- 
teur form their feminine in ambassadrice, gouvernante, ser- 
vante, 

9. Adjectives in er follow the general rule, but take in the 
feminine the grave accent on the penultimate, as ^<?r (proud), 
fiere. 

10. Those ending in gu follow the general rule, but take 
the diaeresis on u, as: aigu (sharp), aigUe; coutigu (contigu- 
ous), contigiie, etc. 



i<i 



ADJECTIVES. 



Formation of the Plural of Adjectives. 

Gener.\l Rule. — The plural is formed by adding s to the 
singular. This rule has no exception for the feminine. There- 
fore the following exceptions apply only to the masculine. 

Adjectives ending in s, x, do not change, as : gris (gray), 
heureicx. 

Adjectives in au^ eau, take x in the plural : deau^ beaux. 

Adjectives ending in al change al into aux : liberal, liber aux. 

But the following eight take s: amical, fatal, final, frugal, 
matinal, naval, pascal, thedtral. Plural, amicals,fatals, etc. 

And the six following are susceptible of both forms : austral 
(southern), colossal, doctoral, ducal, fatal, natal. Plural, 
aust?'als or austraux, colossdls or colossaux, etc. The plural, 
that is formed by the addition of s, is more frequent and more 
harmonious. 

The following adjectives are not used in the masculine 
plural : 

B^n^ficial, medicinal, metal, patronal, 

Canonical, diagonal, diametral, virginal. 

Experimental, vocal, zodiacal. 



Comparison of Adjectives. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison : positive, com- 
parative, superlative. 

Adjectives are compared, in French, by means of ad- 
verbs. 

There are three comparatives: of equality, by si (so), aussi 
— il est aussi grand que son frere ; of inferiority, by pas si 
(not so), pas aussi, mains (less) — il n'est pas si, or aussi labo- 
rieux que nous, or il est mains laborieux que nous ; of superi- 
ority, hy plus — vous QtQsplus fort que lui. 



ADJECTIVES. 37 

There are two superlatives : the absolute, formed by the 
adverbs tres, bien, fo7't; the relative or with comparison, 
formed by le plus, la plus, le moins, la moins, or a possessive 
pronoun, as : mon plus cher ami ; le plus beau livre ; le moins 
paresseux de tous ; les plus attentifs en classe. 

Three adjectives are irregularly compared : 

Bon, comp. meilleur, superl. le meilleur. 

Petit, " moindre, " le moindre. 

Mauvais, " pire, " le pire. 

The two last are also compared regularly. 

Adjectives Common to Both L<anguages. 

Adjectives with the following endings are common to both 
languages : 



able. 


comparable, 


admirable, 


desirable. 


amiable. 






in Fr. desirable. 


in Fr. aimable. 


al, 


fatal, 


prodigal, 


rural. 




ible. 


sensible. 


possible. 


terrible. 




ent. 


prudent, 


ardent, 


content. 




il, 


civil. 








He, 


fertile, 


sterile. 


fragile. 





in Fr. sterile. 
Some others change their endings on passing into French, in 
the following manner : 

an changes into ain : American, americain ; human, humain. 

ary changes into aire : necessary, necessaire ; preliminary, preliminaire. 

ory changes into aire : obligatory, obligatoire. 

ian changes into ien : Italian, italien. 

ic or ical changes into ique : coxaical, comigtee ; logic, logique ; tragical, 

tragique. 
id changes into ide : candid, candide ; fluid, fluide. 
ive changes into if : attentive, attentif; pensive, pensif. 
t«^ changes into ant: charming, ckarmant ; consoling, consolant. 
or changes into eur : anterior, anterieur ; inferior, inferieur. 
ous changes into eux : ambitious, ambitietix ; courageous, courageux. 



38 ADJECTIVES. 

Determinative Adjectives. 

Determinative adjectives specify the meaning of the noun 
by the idea that they add to it, and thereby differ from the 
article, which indicates simply that the noun is taken in a 
determinate sense, without adding any idea to it. 

There are four kinds of determinative adjectives : numeral, 
demonstrative y possessive, indefinite, 

Numeral Adjectives. 

These adjectives add to the noun the idea of number or of 
rank; hence there are two kinds of numeral adjectives : Car- 
dinal, as : un, deux, trois, etc., designating number. Ordinal, 
as : premier, second or deuxieme, troisieme, etc. (See Chapter 
II.) They are of both genders and take the sign of the 

plural. 

Possessive Adjectives. 

Possessive adjectives add to the noun the idea of possession, 
as : mon ami, ton livre, sa maison. They are : 

Plural 
Masculine. Feminine. Common to Both. 

1st Per. mon (mine); notre (our), ma (my); notre (our). mes, nos. 

2d " ton (thine); votre (your), ta (thy); votre (your). tes, vos. 
2,d " son (his); leur (their), sa (her); leur (their). ses, leurs. 

Mon, ton, son, are used for ma, ta, sa, before a vowel or h 
mute, as : mon dme, for ma dme, etc. 

Contrary to English grammar, possessive adjectives agree, in 
French, with \}[i^ possessed, and not with the possessor ; hence 
a boy should say : ma mere, and not mon mere; and a girl 
mon pere, and not ma pere, 

Demonstrative Adjectives. 

This adjective adds to the noun the idea of precise deter- 
mination. 



ADJECTIVES. 39 

Plural 
Masculine. Feminine. Common to Both. 

ce or cet (this or that). cette (this or that). ces (these). 

Cet is used before nouns beginning with a vowel or h mute. 

The distinction made, in EngHsh, by this and that, is ex- 
pressed in French by the particles ci and Id (which have no 
meaning in themselves) joined to the noun by a hyphen, as : 
ce livre-ci, cette maison-ld — this book, that house. 

Indefinite Adjectives. 

These adjectives relate to or represent objects in a general 
or indefinite manner. 

A few indefinite adjectives have two forms, one for the mas- 
cuhne and the other for the feminine, as : 

masculine, aucun (no) ; feminine, aucune. 

" nul (no, not one) ; " nulle. 

" pas un (no, not one) ; " pas une. 

" quel (which, what) ; " quelle. 

" tel (such, such one) ; " telle. 

" maint (many a one) ; " mainte. 

Others have the same form for both genders, and form their 
plural by adding s to the singular; autre (other), chaque 
(every one, each), meme (same), quelque (some), quelconque 
(whatever, vThotYQx) , plusieurs (many). 

Observations. — Aucun, nul, pas un, are always singular, 
and require the particle ne before the verb of which they are 
the subject, as : nul eleve, aucun eleve, pas un eleve n'est 
pares seux. 

Another, meaning once more, still more, is translated in 
French by enco7'e, as : another time, encore une fois ; another 
glass, encore un verre. 

Tout, toute, tous, toutes, are separated either by the article, 
the numeral un, une, or by the preposition de, from the noun 



40 PRONOUNS. 

they qualify, as : everybody, tout le monde ; a. whole year, toutf 
une amiee ; all the same, tout de meme. 

Quel, quelle, is also used as an exclamation, and is rendered 
by what a, as : quel homme ! what a man ! 

Quelco7ique always follows its noun, as : from any two points, 
de deux points quelconques. 

CHAPTER VI. 

PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Pronouns 
enable us to avoid the repetition of a noun. 

There are five classes of pronouns in French : personal, 
demonstrative, possessive, relative, indefinite. 

Personal Pronouns. 

Personal Pronouns are those which distinguish the three 
persons. Pronouns of the first and second person are the 
same in both genders and numbers. 

The first person, the one who speaks, is represented by : 

Singular. Plural. 

je, moi, me (I, me). nous (we, us). 

The second person, the one spoken to, is represented by : 

Singular. Plural. 

tu, toi, te (thou, thee). vous (you). 

The third person, the one spoken of, is represented by : 

Sing. Masc. Plur. Masc. 

11, le (he, him). ils, eux (they, them). 

Sing. Fern. Plur. Fern. 

elle, la (she, her). elles (they, them). 



PRONOUNS. 41 

The following pronouns are common to both genders : 




f to him, fhim, f of him, f to him, 

lui -l to her, soi or se ^ her, en ^ of her, y ■{ to her, 

[ to it. 



^ to he 
[to it. 



Plural. 

les (them), leur (to them), se (them), en (of them), y (to them). 

As these pronouns are in frequent use, and present difficul- 
ties to beginners, it may not be out of place to make some 
remarks about their use ; though, strictly speaking, these 
remarks belong to Syntax. 

The word meme, added to the pronouns moi, toi, with a 
hyphen, forms a kind of compound pronoun, used to give more 
emphasis : Je Vai vu jnoi-meme — I have seen him myself. 

Moi-meme (myself), toi-mhne (thyself), lui-meme (himself), 
elle-inenie (herself), soi-meme (itself). Nous-memes (our- 
selves), vous-mhfies (yourselves), eux-menies (themselves), 
elles-memes (themselves) . 

Moi, tot, lui, elk, soi, nous, vous, eux, elks, soi, are used : 

1. To avoid the repetition of a sentence, or a part of a sen- 
tence, as : Qui appelle ? Moi. 

2. To give emphasis to a sentence, or to indicate the parts 
of the subject: Elk, elk estlafeinmefo7'te. Lui, il est coura- 
geux. Toi et moi, nous avons reussi. Son frere, lui et moi, 
nous avons ete heureux. 

3. After etre, having ce for subject, and after a preposition : 
Oest lui. Vous parkrez apres eux. 

Me, te, se, nous, vous, se, as we have already seen, are placed 
before the reflexive verb, in the simple tenses, and before the 
first auxiliary in the compound tenses. 

When personal pronouns are the object of a verb, they are 



42 



PRONOUNS. 



placed before it, in the simple tenses, and before the auxiliary 
in the compound tenses, as : Je le iwis,je Vai lu. 

Except when the verb is affirmative, and in the imperative 
mode, then the pronoun is placed after the verb : avei-tissez-le ; 
but if the verb, though in the imperative mode, is negative, the 
pronoun is placed before the verb, as : Ne Vavertissez pas. 

Le, la^ ks, personal pronouns, always accompany a verb, and 
le, la, les, articles, a noun, or a word used as a noun. 

Possessive Pronouns. 



These pronouns 


add to the 


noun the idea of possession; 


they are : 










Singular. 






Masculine. 




Feminine. 


1st Person 


le mien 


(mine), 


la mienne. 


2d " 


le tien 


(thine). 


la tienne. 


3d " 


le sien 


(his, hers), 


la sienne. 




Plural. 






Masculine. 




Feminine. 


J St Per. 


les miens 


(mine). 


les miennes. 


2d " 


les tiens 


(thine). 


les tiennes. 


3d " 


les siens 


(his, hers), 


les siennes. 




Singular. 






Masculine. 




Feminine. 


I St Per. 


le notre 


(ours), 


la notre. 


2d « 


le votre 


(yours), 


la votre. 


3d « 


le leur 


(theirs). 


la leur. 



Plural. 

Masculine and Feminine. 
J St Per. les notres (ours), 
zd " les votres (yours), 

3d " les leurs (theirs). 



PRONOUNS. 



43 



In French these pronouns agree in number and gender with 
the noun they refer to, as : A qui est ceite gram?nau-e ? Cest 
la vdtre, etc. Differently, they agree with the possessed^ and 
not with the possessor. 

Demonstrative Pronouns. 

Demonstrative pronouns point out objects definitely : 



Singular. 



Masc. 



Ce or cet (this) 



Celui 

Celui-ci 

Celui-lk 

Ceci 

Cela 



(this), 
(this one), 
(that one), 
(this), 
(that), 



Fern. 

cette. 
celle. 
celle-ci. 
celle-lk. 
no fern. 



Masc. 

Ces 

Ceux 
Ceux-ci 
Ceux-lk 
No plural. 



Plural. 

(these), 
(these), 
(these), 
(those), 



Fern. 

ces. 
celles, 
celles-ci. 
celles-lk. 



Relative Pronouns. 

A relative pronoun is one that relates to and connects its 
clause with a noun or pronoun before it. The relative pro- 
nouns are : 
Qui (who), que (whom), quoi (what). 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Lequel, laquelle (who, whom, which). 

Duquel, de laquelle (whose, of which). 

Du quel, de la quelle. 

Lesquels, lesquelles (who, which). 

Desquels, des quels, desquelles, des quelles (of which) 

Dont (of whom), both genders and numbers. 
Ou (in which), d'ou (from which), par ou (through which). 



Indefinite Pronouns. 

Indefinite pronouns relate to objects indefinitely. 
They are : 



44 


PRONOUNS. 
Singular. 




Masculine. 




Feminine. 


Chacun (each, every one), 




chacune. 


Nul (no one), 




nulle. 


Pas un (no one), 




pas une. 


Tel (such), 




telle. 


Certain (some), 




certaine. 


Quelqu'un (somebody). 




quelqu'une. 


L'un (some one), 




I'une. 


L'un et I'autre (both), 




Tune et I'autre. 


L'un ou I'autre (either), 




I'une ou I'autre. 


Ni l'un ni I'autre (neither), 




ni I'une ni I'autre. 


Aucun (no one). 




aucune. 


Un de (one of), 


Plural. 


une de. 


Masculine. 




Feminine. 


Tels, 




telles. 


Certains, 




certaines. 


Quelques-uns, 




quelques-unes. 


Les uns, 




les unes. 


Les uns et les autres, 




les unes et les autres. 


Les uns ou les autres, 




ks unes ou les autres. 


Ni les uns ni les autres. 




ni les unes ni les autres. 



On (some, we, they), autre (other), autrui (others) per- 
sonne (no one, nobody), quiconque (whoever), rien (nothing). 

Remarks. — On may be translated by they or we, as : On 
arrive a la porte de la grotte — They arrive at the door of the 
grotto — means that the speaker is not included in the party 
who arrives ; but we arrive, etc., means that he is one of them. 

Autrui always refers to persons and is preceded by a prep- 
osition, as : Les enfants d'autrui, penser a autrui^ and is 
never followed by son, sa, ses, leur, leurs ; but by en and the 
article : En epousant les interets d" autrui, on ne doit pas en 
epouser les passions. 

Personne, aucun, nul, pas un, ni Vun ni V autre, rien, require 



VERBS. 



45 



ne before the verb \ iJ ne veut personne, il ne demande rien, ni 
Vun ni P mitre n* obtiendra le prix, etc. 

Rien used as a noun — c^est un rien, il dit des riens — does 
not require ne before the verb. 



D>3^< 



CHAPTER VII. 

VERBS. 

There are five classes of Verbs in French : active, passive, 
neuter, reflective, impersonal. 

An active verb, called also transitive (as in EngHsh), ex- 
presses an action, and supposes an agent acting and an object 
acted upon: I love my father — j'aime mon pere. 

A verb is active when it answers to the question : qui? 
(whom?) for persons, and quoi? (what?) for things, as : j'aime 
mon pere ; il aime ses Hvres; j'aime qui? il aime quoi? 

The passive verb represents its subject as acted upon : mon 
pere est aim6. 

In French, as in English, the passive verb takes the auxiliary 
to be in the tenses corresponding to the simple tenses of the 
active voice, and the auxiliaries to have and to be in the com- 
pound tenses. In the passive voice the past participle follows 
the rules of concord for adjectives : ma mere est aimee ; nous 
sommes avertis. 

The neuter verb, called also intransitive, expresses an action 
affecting only the agent or subject, y'*? marche ; but this action 
can only affect an object indirectly by means of a preposition : 
je parle a Cesar. 

Active verbs are sometimes used as neuter verbs : I'esprit 
est le don de concevoir avec finesse, et de rendre d'une 



46 VERBS. 

maniere piquante. And neuter verbs are occasionally used as 
active verbs, as : parler la langue de la verite. 

As some neuter verbs take the auxiliary avoir, and some 
etre, it may be difficult to determine which of the two aux- 
iliaries is to be used. Avoir refers to the action, and etre 
to the state or condition, hence we may estabhsh the following 
rule : 

Avoir is used when we consider rather the action : fai 
marche. 

Eire is used when we consider rather the condition : Je suis 
venu. 

The reflective verb represents its subject as acted upon 
itself; hence its direct object is always a personal pronoun 
of the same person as the subject, as : Je me coupe. 

There are two kinds of reflective verbs : the real reflective 
and the accidental reflective. The first is always and only a 
reflective verb, as : se repentir (to repent) ; the second may 
be used in the active form. Every active verb may be used 
in the reflective form. 

A reflective verb takes the auxihary etre, in the compound 
tenses, as : Je me suis coupe (I have cut myself). 

The impersonal verb is used only in the third person singu- 
lar, as: il tonne (it thunders), il pleut (it rains). The pro- 
noun // is not the true subject of the verb, the true subject 
is after the verb, as : // faut aimer le prochain; aimer le 
prochain is the true subject. When the true subject is not 
expressed, as, il pleut, ihe true subject is temps. 

Note. — Neuter, passive, and reflective verbs may be used as impersonal 
verbs, as: il tombe de la pluie; il a ete pris des mesures severes; il se pre- 
sente una occasion favorable. 



VERBS. 47 

Subject and Object of the Verb. 

Every verb has a subject to which is referred the action or 
condition expressed by the verb. The subject answers to the 
question qui est-ce qui? (who?) for persons, and qu'est-ce 
qui? (which? what?) for things. 

Aux petits des oiseaux Dieu donne la pature. Qui est-ce 
qui donne? Dieu. Dieu is the subject of donne. 

The word used to complete the signification of a verb is 
called regime (regimen), or object of that verb. 

There are two kinds of regifuen, the direct and the indirect 
The direct regimen completes by itself the signification of the 
verb, and answers to the question qui? (whom?) for persons, 
and quoi? (what?) for things. 

The indirect regimen completes the signification of the verb 
by means of the prepositions a, de, par, avec, etc. It answers 
to the questions : a qui ? to whom ? a quoi ? to what ? de qui ? 
of or from whom ? de quoi ? of or from what ? etc. L'inimitie 
succede a ramitie trahie. Succede a quoi? A Vamitie 
trahie. 

Some pronouns, such as /<?, la, les, que, are used as the direct 
regimen, and others as indirect regimen, as lui, leur, dont, en, 
y, on account of the preposition they contain. But me, te, 
se, nous, vous, may be used as direct and as indirect regimen. 

Modification of Verbs. 

In French, more than in EngHsh, the verbs are subject to 
changes in forms or terminations, which are called Modifi- 
cations. These modifications are four in number : person, 
number, mode, and tense. 

Person and Number. 

In French, as in English, there are three persons and two 
numbers ; thus the verb varies its endings to express the dif- 



48 VERBS. 

ferent persons of the same number, as : j'aime ; tu aim.fi-, etc. ; 
and also to express the same persons of different numbers, as : 
je vends ; nous vendons. 

Modes. 

Mode or mood is the particular form of the verb which shows 
the manner in which the being, action, or passion is represented.^ 

In French, there are five modes : indicative, conditional, 
imperative, subjunctive, infinitive. 

The indicative expresses the action in a positive manner. 
It is also used to ask a question, as : 

Je suis jeune, il est vrai; mais aux ames bien nees 

La valeur n' attend pas le nombre des annees. — Corneille. 

Rodrigue, as-tu du coeur? — Corneille. 

The conditional expresses a condition or supposition : iu 
pourrais suivre une carriere plus glorieuse ; je lirais ce livre s'il 
^tait bon. 

The English potential mood of a verb is sometimes trans- 
lated into French by the potential mood of devoir or falloir, 
when it implies duty, obligation : I do what you should have 
done — jefais ce que vous auriez dufaire. 

The imperative expresses a command, desire, or exhortation. 

Partez, vaillants soldats. 

Aimez qu'on vous conseille, et non pas qu'on vous loue. — Boileau. 

The subjunctive, which expresses the action of the verb 
under condition, is always preceded by a conjunction expressed 
or understood, and attended by another verb : QuHl le veuille, 
ou qu'il ne le veuille pas, la chose sera faite. 

The infinitive expresses action in an indefinite manner, with- 
out distinction of number or person, and consequently is called 
the iinpe7'sonal mode. 

On peut etre heros, sans ravager la terre. — Boileau. 

1 The nature of a mood consists in the change which the verb under- 
goes to signify various intentions of the mind, and various modifications 
and circumstances of action. — Murray. 



VERBS. 49 

Tenses. 

The Indicative Mode in French has two tenses more 
than it has in Enghsh : the pas ^ definite and Xkve past anterior. 
The other tenses are ahke. 

Tense is that form of the verb which shows the distinctions 
of time. Time may be divided 'mto present, past, smd future. 
The p?'esent, not being divisible, has but one tense. The past 
and the future admit of seven degrees of priority and posterior- 
ity. Hence the Indicative Mode has eight tenses. 

1. The present expresses what is going on at the present 
time, or what is habitual. 

Oui,jeviens dans son temple adorer I'Eternel. — Racine. 

Celui qui met un frein ^ la fureur des flots 

Salt aussi des mechants arr^ter les complots. — Idem. 

2. The imperfect expresses an action entirely past, but con- 
sidered as present at a certain time past : C^sar prodigua 
I'argent dans une r^publique qu'il voulait corrompre — that he 
was trying to corrupt. — La Haipe. 

3. 'Y\\e past definite expresses an action which took place at 
a precise time fully past : Turenne, dans le siecle le plus f^cond 
en grands hommes, n'eut point de sup^rieur, et ne compta qu'un 
rival — he had no superior and counted but one rival. 

4. The past indefinite expresses an action which took place at 
some past time not specified, or at a time not entirely past : 
f'ai fini ma lettre — even though I have finished it just now. 

5. The past anterior expresses a past action as having taken 
place before another action also past : Quand/V^^j- reconnu ma 
idMX.e,feus ho7ite de mes mauvais proced^s. 

6. The pluperfect expresses an action not only as past, but 
also as prior to another one entirely past : J'avaisfini ma lettre 
quand il vint. 



50 VERBS. 

Note. — The use of these two tenses should be carefully noted. Their 
essential difterence is that the action expressed by the J>as/ anterior is sub- 
ordinate to the action expressed by the other verb. Attention is especially 
called to the last verb, as : Quand j'eus reconnu . . . feus honte. But the 
contrary happens with \hQ pluperfect — that is to say, attention is especially 
called to the action expressed hy the pluperfect : Quand \\ \\nt, favais fi7ii 
ma lettre. Attention is called to the fact that my letter was finished when 
he came. 

7. The future expresses an action that will take place, with 
or without reference to the precise time. It expresses also 
command, duty : Un seul Dieu /// adoreras. 

Entre le pauvre et vous, vous prendrez Dieu pour juge. — Racine. 

8. The future anterior expresses an action that will take 
place before another future action : Quand faurai fiiii, je 
fouerai. 

Primitive Tenses. 

Tenses are divided into Primitive and Derived. Primitive 
tenses are five in number : the present infinitive., present parti- 
ciple^ past participle, present ifidicative, past definite. These 
tenses serve to form the derived tenses. 



VERBS. 



51 



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Xtl 




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4) 




H 




Q 


I?-; 


> 





•M 


H 


tf 


<: 







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TT) 


P^ 


CX) 
















p^ 












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u 

s 

z 
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Ph 


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Ph 


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1 


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OS 


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Ph 


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52 



VERBS. 



Formation of the Derived Tenses. 

The Present Infinitive forms — 

1 . The Future by adding ai for the first and second conjuga- 
tions, as couper,y<? couperai ; fimx,je fi^iirai ; and by changing 
oir and re into rai for the third and fourth conjugations respec- 
tively, as rece voir, /> recevrai ; vendre, y> vendrai. 

2. The Present Conditionally adding ais for the first and 
second conjugations, as coxx'^Qr, Je couperais ; ^mx^jefinirais; 
and by changing oir and re into rais for the other two conjuga- 
tions, as recevoir,y> recevrais ; vendre,7> vendrais. 

The Present Participle forms — 

I. ThQ plural of the Prese^it Indicative by changing, for the 
first, second, and fourth conjugations, ant into ons, ez, ent; and 
for the third conjugation by changiQg evant into evons, evez, 
oivent. 



First Conjugation. 

Present Participle. 

Coup-ant. 

Plural of the Present Indicative. 

Nous coup-o«j', we cut. 

Vous coup-^s, you cut. 

lis coup-^w/", they cut. 



Second Conjugation. 

Present Participle. 

Finiss-ant. 

Plural of the Present Indicative. 

Nous finiss-(?«j, we finish. 

Vous finiss-^2, you finish. 

lis finiss-^«/, they finish. 



Third Conjugation. Fourth Conjugation. 

Present Participle. Present Participle. 

Recev-ant. Vend-ant. 

Plural of the Present Participle. Plural of the Present Indicative. 

Nous recev-£>«j, we receive. Nous vend-£?«J, we sell. 

Vous recev-^2, you receive. Vous vend-^z, you sell. 

lis re§oiv-^«/, they receive. lis vend-^«/, //^^^ j^//. 




VERBS. 53 

2. The Imperfect Indicative of the four conjugations by 
changing ant into ais, ais, ait, ions, iez, aie7it ; as, coupant, 
je coup-ais, tu coup-ais, il coup-ait, nous coup-ions, vous coup-iez, 
ils coup-aient ; ^m.%S2Xi\.,je finiss-ais, etc. ; recevant,/*? recev-ais^ 
etc. ; vendant,y> vend-ais, etc. 

3. The Present Subjunctive by changing ant, for the first, 
second, and fourth conjugations, into e, es, e, ions, iez, ent ; 
and for the third conjugation by changing evant into oive^ 
jives, oive, evions, eviez, oivent; as, coupant, que je coup-e^ 
que tu coup-es, qu'il coup-e, que nous coup-ions, que vous 
coup-iez; finissant, que je jiniss-e, etc.; vendant, que je vend-e, 
eic. ; recevant, que je reg-oive, que tu req-oives, quHl reg-oive^ 
que 710US I'ec-evions, que vous rec-eviez, qicHls reg-oivent. 

The Past Participle forms all the compound tenses with the 
help of one of the auxiliary verbs avoir or etre. 

The Present Indicative forms the Imperative by suppressing 
the pronouns ; as, je coupe, coupe. 

The Past Definite forms the Lnperfect Subjimctive by adding 
se, ses (the third person singular changes s into t), sions, siez, 
sent, to the second person singular ; as, tu coupas, que je 
coupas-se ; tu finis, quejejinis-se, etc. 

A General Sequence of Tenses and Modes. 

General Rule. — The tenses of the principal verb, more 
than its modes, determine the tense and mode of the subordi- 
nate verb. 

Below are paradigms of the different tenses with their cor- 
relatives. 

The Present Indicative is followed by — , 

The present indicative, \ •>' • f quand vous lisez. 
The past indefinite, / I quand vous avez lu. 



54 VERBS. 



The Imperfect is followed by — 

The imperfect, 1 ^ T quand vous lisiez (when you were reading). 

The past definite, ! > J quand vous vtntes (when you came). 
The past indefinite, | o | quand vous avez lu (when you have read, — 
J •'^ I you were through reading). 

The Past Definite is followed by — 

The past definite, ") ., . . ( quand vous dictates. 

rr^, • / X Vj ecrivis^ ^ 

The past anterior (more usual), ) C quand j'eus fini. 

The Past Indefinite is followed by — 

The past indefinite, ] 3 f quand vous avez voulu. 
The imperfect, '> •- ■' quand vous ecriviez. 

The past anterior, j "'^ I quand vous e(ites fini. 

The Past Anterior is followed nearly always by the past defi- 
nite, as : Quand j'eus lu, vous entrdtes. 
The Pluperfect is followed by ^- 



The pluperfect, ~] 
The imperfect. 
The past definite, 
The past indefinite 
The past anterior, 



' quand vous aviez ecrit. 
quand vous entriez (when you were entering), 
quand vous entrates (when you entered), 
quand vous avez ecrit. 
quand vous futes arrive. 



The Future is followed by — 

The future, 1 — f ^^^^^ vous partirez. 

The present indicative, 1 .j:: J si vous lisez. 
The past indefinite, | jj ( quand vous avez fini. 
The future anterior, J "^ I quand vous aurez fini. 

The Future Anterior is followed only by the Future : Quand 
vous aurez fini, je partirai. 

The Present Conditional is followed by — 



The present conditional, ] .2 f '^^ j^ n'aurais pas ma recompense. 
The past conditional, I .h; J que tu n'aurais pas coupe cet arbre. 

The imperfect of the ind., [ <j2 j si vous m'ecoutiez. 
The pluperfect of the ind., J -2^ [ si je n'avais ete empSche. 



VERBS. 



55 



The Past Conditional is followed by the pluperfect indica- 
tive, as : Vous auriez garde votre rang, si vous aviez ete sage ; 
and the past conditional: Quand il aurait eu tout Tor du 
monde, il rC aurait pas ete heureux. 

Sequence of Tenses in the Indicative Mode. 

When two verbs are united by the conjunction que, the 
indicative is used if the first verb is positive, i.e., expresses a 
positive act. But then is produced a new sequence of tenses, 
as follows : 

The Present Indicative correlates to — 

' que vous lisez. 
que vous jouerez demain. 
que vous ecriviez hier. 
que vous regdtes un livre ce matin, 
que vous avez lu votre legon hier. 
que vous aviez copie votre devoir, 
que vous etudieriez apres demain. 
que vous auriez etudie aujourd'hui. 

Note. — The same sequence takes place when the sentence is negative, 
except in the present indicative, vv^hich must be replaced by the present 
subjunctive : Je ne veux pas que vov& partiez. 

When the second verb expresses a transient action, and 
when the present is only so relatively to the first verb, then the 
imperfect, the past definite, the past indefinite, and the pluper- 
fect correlate to the imperfect : 



The present indicative, 




The future, 




The imperfect, 




The past detinite. 


en 


The past indefinite, 


• 2i> 


The pluperfect, 




The present conditional, 




The past conditional, 





On disait 
Ondit 
On a dit 
On avait dit 



que vous aimiez I'etude. 



If the past anterior of the first verb is to be expressed, then 
the imperfect, the past definite, the past indefinite and the 
pluperfect correlate to the pluperfect : 



56 



VERBS. 



On disait 
On dit 
On a dit 
On avait dit 



y qu'il avait vendu sa maison. 



When the future is signified, then the imperfect, the past 
definite, the past indefinite, and the pluperfect correlate to the 
present conditional, as : 



On me disait 
On m'assura 
On m'a promis 
On m'avait promis 



que vous vendriez cette ferme. 



If the second verb expresses an action always true, and which 
may happen at any time, then these same tenses correlate to 
the present indicative, as : 

Je vous disais que les crimes secrets ont Dieu pour temoin. 
Je vous dis que I'espoir est le soutien des malheureiix. 
Je vous ai dit ^w'tV n'y a rien de stable au monde. 

Je vous avais dit que la sante fait le bonheur du corps, et le savoir, le 
bonheur de I'esprit. — Levizac. 



Another Correlation of Tenses. 

When the second verb is in the subjunctive mode, then the 
present subjunctive correlates to — 



The present indicative, 

The future, 

The future anterior, 



je veux 
je voudrai 
\ j'aurai voulu 



que tu viennes. 



The Imperfect Subjunctive correlates to — 

The imperfect, f je voulais 
The past definite, je voulus 

The past indefinite, . j'ai voulu 
The pluperfect, j'avais voulu 

The present conditional, je voudrais 

The past conditional, I- j'aurais voulu J 



que tu vinsses. 



VERBS. 



57 



The Perfect Subjunctive to — 



The present, 


je veux 


The past indefinite, 


j'ai voulu 


The future. 


je voudrai 


The future anterior, 


j'aurai voulu 


The Pluperfect to — 




The imperfect. 


■je vou'ais 


The past definite. 


je voulus 


The past indefinite, 


j'ai voulu 


The pluperfect, 


j'avais voulu 


The present conditional, 


je voudrais 


The past conditional, 


. j'aurais voulu 



que tu aies ecrit. 



que tu eusses ecrit. 
que tu fusses venu. 
que tu te fusses corrige. 



— Levizac. 

To render this sequence easier in practice, the two following 
general rules may be established : 

I. Rule. — The present subjunctive is used to express time 
which is present or future, with regard to the verb of the 
principal sentence, when the verb of the principal sentence is 
in XhQ present indicative or future indicative; and the perfect 
subjunctive is used to express time which is past with regard 
to the verb of the principal sentence : II faut que celui qui 
parle, se mette a la port^e de ses auditeurs ; et que celui qui 
^crit, ait dessein de se faire comprendre de ses lecteurs. II 
faudra qu'il se rende. II sufht qu'il n'ait rien n^ghg^. 

Exception. — But if the sentence contains a conditional 
expression, the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is used, 
though the verb of the principal sentence be in the present 
indicative : Je ne pense pas que cette affaire etct reussi sans 
votre protection. 

II. Rule. — The imperfect subjunctive is used to express 
an action either present or future, with regard to the verb of 
the principal sentence, when the verb of the principal sentence 
is in the imperfect, past definite or indefinite, pluperfect, 
present or past conditional; and the pluperfect subjunctive 



58 VERBS. 

is used to express an action past, with regard to the first 
verb. 

Exception. — The present subjunctive maybe used with the 
past indefinite to express a continued action or one which 
may happen at any time, as : Dieu a entour^ les yeux de 
tuniques fort minces et transparentes, afiji qu'on puisse voir. 
The perfect subjunctive is used to express a past action : II 
a fallu qu'il ait solliciie ses juges. — De Wailly. 

Orthographic Irregularities in Verhs. 

First Conjugation. 

Verbs ending in the present infinitive in ger take e before 
a and o to preserve the soft sound of g, as : proteger, nous 
protegeons ; those ending in cer, c takes the cedilla before 
a and o to preserve the soft sound of c: commencerj nous 
coinmen^ons, nous commengdmes. 

Verbs ending in erer change the acute into the grave 
accent before a mute syllable, as : considerer, je considere. 
The same change takes place when the final syllable of a 
verb is preceded by e mute, as : mener, je mene. 

Verbs ending in the infinitive in eter, eler, double the con- 
sonant before e mute : j'e/er, je jette ; appeler, j'appelle; and 
the e is sounded slightly grave. 

Verbs ending in ier, present participle iani, double the / 
in the first and second person plural of the imperfect indicative 
and present subjunctive, as : prianf, nous priions, que vous priiez. 

Verbs ending in yer, present participle yant, take / after 
y in the same tenses and persons. The same change occurs 
in verbs of any conjugation, having such a participle. In 
these verbs (ending in yer) y is changed into i before e 
mute, as: payer, je paie ; appuyer, j'appuie; ployer, je ploie. 

Verbs in eer, as creer, retain the double e, except before 
a, o, i: nous ere antes, nous creons, vous ereiez. 



VERBS. 59 

Second Conjugation. 

Benir has two past participles : b^nit, b^nite {consecrated) , 
and b^ni, b^nie, in all other meanings. 

Hair omits the diaeresis in the singular of the present indica- 
tive, and in the second person singular of the imperative : je 
hais, tu hais, il hait — hais. 

Third Conjugation. 

Verbs in evoir are the only verbs perfectly regular. 
Devoir and re devoir take the circumflex accent on u only in 
the masculine singular of the past participle : die, redu. 

Fourth Conjugation. 

Verbs ending in indre or soudre in the infinitive take s, s, t in 
the singular of the present indicative. 

Participles. 

Participles are so called because they partake of the nature 
of the verb, in that they express an action or state ; and of the 
nature of the adjective, in that they qualify a subject. 

There are two participles in French : the present and the 
past participle. 

The Present Participle always ends in a7it, and refers to the 
object of the verb. The preposition en, expressed or under- 
stood, distinguishes it from the gerund, ending also in ant, 
which always refers to the subject of the verb, as \Je Pai trouve 
lisant un livre — I found him reading. Me promenant sur le 
rivage, j'ai trouv6 une perle — Walking (while walking) on the 
shore, I found a pearl. 

The Past Participle has various endings. When used without 
an auxiliary it is called absolute. It is then a true adjective, 
and follows the rules for adjectives. 



60 INVARIABLE WORDS. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

INVARIABLE WORDS. 
Prepositions. 

A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a 
noun or pronoun following it and some other word in the 
sentence. It expresses the various relations oi place, time, con- 
venience, union, etc. 

An expression fulfilling the office of a preposition is called 
prepositive locution, as : d regard de, enfaveurde, etc. 

Adverbs. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb. Adverbs may be divided into the following 
classes : adverbs oi number, order, place, time, quantity, quality or 
manner, doubt, affirmation, negation, iiiterrogation, comparison. 

An expression fulfilling the office of an adverb is called ad- 
verbial locution, as : en general, sans cesse, a tort et a travers, 
sens dessus dessous, sur-le-champ. 

Conjunctions. 

A conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or 
sentences : Travaillons si nous voulons devenir savants. But the 
conjunction sometimes begins a sentence, as : Quand on fait 
bien, on a droit a la recompense. 

Conjunctions are of two classes : copulative and disjunctive. 
A copulative conjunction connects sentences together by ex- 
pressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, etc. A disjunc- 
tive conjunction joins two sentences together by expressing 
opposition of meaning : lis sont venus avec lui ; ils sont partis 
sans lui. 



INVARIABLE WORDS. 6 I 

An expression fulfilling the office of a conjunction is called 

conjunctive locution^ as : au reste^par consequent^ du nioins, etc. 

* 

Interjections. 

An Interjection is a word used to express various but sudden 
passions of the soul, excited by joy, sorrow or pain, admira- 
tion, etc. 

The interjection is so called because it is thrown in among 
the words of a sentence without any grammatical connection 
with them. 

Grand Dieu ! juste ciel ! merci ! malpeste ! etc., are called 
interjectional or exclamative expressions. 

Aie ! ate ! au secours ! k I'aide, Ton m'assomme ! 

Ah ! ah ! ah ! ah ! 6 traitre, 6 bourreau d'homnie ! — La Fontaine. 



62 



MODEL VERBS. 



MODEL VERBS OF THE 

(In the following list of irregular verbs, only the primitive parts are 



INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 




INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


Present. 


Past. 




Present. 






^ 




^ 


Aller (6tre), 
to go. 


allant. 


alle. 


je vais, 
tu vas, 
ilva. 


nous allons, 
vous allez, 
ils vont. 


Envoyer, 
to send. 


envoyant. 


envoyd. 


j'envoie. 




Acquerir, 
to acquire. 


acquerant. 


acquis. 


j'acquiers, . 
tu acquiers, 
il acquiert. 


nous acquerons, 
vous acquerez, 
ils acquierent. 


Bouillir, 
to boil. 


bouillant. 


bouilli. 


je bous, 
tu bous, 
il bout. 


nous bouillons, 
vous bouillez, 
ils bouillent. 


Courir, 
to ru7i. 


courant. 


couru. 


je cours, 
tu cours, 
il court, 


nous courons, 
vous courez, 
ils courent. 


Cueillir, 
to gather. 


cueillant. 


cueilli. 


je cueille, 
tu cueilles, 
il cueille, 


nous cueillons, 
vous cueillez, 
ils cueillent. 


Fair, 
toflee. 


fuyant. 


fui. 


je fuis, 
tu fuis, 
il fuit. 


nous fuyons, 
vous fuyez, 
ils fuient. 


Mourir (etre), 
to die. 


mourant. 


mort. 


je meurs, 
tu meurs, 
il meurt. 


nous mourons, 
vous mourez, 
ils meurent. 


Ouvrir, 
to open. 


ouvrant. 


cuvert. 


j'ouvre, 
tu ouvres, 
il ouvre, 


nous ouvrons, 
vous ouvrez, 
ils ouvrent. 


Partir (etre), 
to set out. 


partant. 


parti. 


je pars, 
tu pars, 
il part. 


nous partons, 
vous partez, 
ils partent. 


Venir (8tre), 
to coine. 


venant. 


venu. 


je viens, 
tu viens, 
il vient. 


nous venons, 
vous venez, 
ils viennent. 


Vetir, 
to clothe. 


vetant. 


vetu. 


je vets, 
tu vets, 
il vet. 


nous vetons, 
vous vetez, 
ils vetent. 


S'asseoir (etre), 
to sit dowtt. 


s'asseyant. 


assis. 


je m'assieds,- 
tu t'assieds, 
il s'assied. 


* nous nous asseyons, 
vous vous asseyez, 
ils s'asseient.t 


Falloir, 

to be necessary. 




fallu. 


il faut. 





* Je m'assois, etc., is also said, but less frequently, 
t ils s'asseyent is equally correct. 



MODEL VERBS. 



63 



IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS. 

given, and those derivative tenses which are not regularly derived.) 



INDICATIVE. 
DE^miTE. Future. 



j'allai. 



j irai. 



j envoyai. j enverrai. 



IMPERA- 
TIVE. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 



allons, quej'aille, 
va. allez. que tu ailles, 
qu'il aille, 



que nous alliens, 
que vous alliez, 
qu'ils aillent. 



j acquis. J acquerrai. 
je bouillis. 

je courus. je courrai. 

je cueillis. je cueillerai. 

je fuis. 

je mourus. je mourrai. 

j'ouvris. 

je partis. 

je vins. je viendrai. 

je vetis. 

je m'assis. je m'assidraL 



que j'acquifere, que nous acqu^rions, 

que tu acquieres, que vous acqu^riez, 

qu'il acqui&re, qu'ils acqui^rent. 



que je meure, 
que tu meures, 
qu'il meure, 



que je vienne, 
que tu viennes, 
qu'il vienne. 



que nous mourions, 
que vous mouriez, 
qu'ils meurent. 



que nous venions, 
que vous veniez, 
qu'ils viennent. 



il fallut. il faudra. 



qu'il faille. 



64 



MODEL VERBS. 



INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 




INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


Present. 


Past. 




Present. 


Mouvoir, 


mouvant. 


mu. 


je meus, 


nous mouvons, 


to move. 






tu meus, 
il meut. 


vous mouvez, 
ils meuvent. 


Pleuvoir, 
to rain. 


pleuvant. 


plu. 


il pleut. 




Pouvoir, 
to be able. 


pouvant. 


pu. 


je peux or 
tu peux, 
il peut, 


puis, nous pouvons, 
yous pouvez, 
ils peuvent. 


Savoir, 
to know. 


sachant.* 


su. 


je sais, 
tu sais, 
il sait. 


nous savons, 
vous savez, 
ils savent. 


Valoir, 

to he worth. 


valant. 


valu. 


je vaux, 
tu vaux, 
il vaut, 


nous valons, 
yous valez, 
ils valent. 


Voir, 
to see. 


voyant. 


vu. 


je vois, 
tu vois, 
il voit, 


nous voyons, 
vous voyez, 
ils voient. 


Vouloir, 

to be nvilling. 


voulant. 


voulu. 


je veux, 
tu veux, 
il veut. 


nous voulons, 
vous voulez, 
ils veulent. 


Battre, 
to beat. 


battant. 


battu. 


je bats, 
tu bats, 
il bat. 


nous^battons, 
vous battez, 
ils battent. 


Boire, 
to drink. 


buvant. 


bu. 


je bois, 
tu bois, 
il boit, 


nous buvons, 
yous buvez, 
ils boivent. 


Conclure, 
to conclude. 


concluant. 


conclu. 


je conclus, 
tu conclus, 
il conclut. 


nous concluons, 
vous concluez, 
ils concluent. 


Conduire, 
to conduct. 


conduisant. 


conduit. 


je conduis, 
tu conduis, 
il conduit. 


nous conduisons, 
yous conduisez, 
ils conduisent. 


Connaitre, 


connaissant. 


connu. 


je connais, 


nous connaissons, 


to know. 






tu connais, 
il connait. 


vous connaissez, 
ils connaissent. 


Coudre, 
to sew. 


cousant. 


cousu. 


je couds, 
tu couds, 
il coud. 


nous cousons, 
vous cousez, 
ils cousent. 


Croire, 
to believe. 


croyant. 


cm. 


je crois, 
tu crois, 
il croit. 


nous croyons, 
vous croyez, 
ils croient. 


Dire, 
to say. 


disant. 


dit. 


je dis, 
tu dis, 
il dit. 


nous disons, 
vous dites, 
ils disent. 



* Imperfect, y^ savais, etc. 



MODEL VERBS. 



65 



INDICATIVE. IMPERA- 

Past t?„^„„„ TIVE. 

Definite. F"^"''^' 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 



je mus. 



que je meuve. 



il plut. 
je pus. 

je sus. 

je valus. 

je vis. 



je pourrai. 



je saurai. 



je vaudrai. 



je verrai. 



sache, sachons, 
sachez. 



que je puisse, que nous puissions, 

que tu puisses, que vous puissiez, 
qu'il puisse, qu'ils puissent. 



que je sache, 
que tu saches, 
qu'il sache. 



que nous sachions, 
que vous sachiez, 
qu'ils sachent. 



que je vaille, que nous valions, 

que tu vailles, que vous valiez, 

qu'il vaille, qu'ils vaillent. 



je voulus. je voudrai. 



je battis. 



veux. 



voulons, 
veuillez. 



que je veuille, 
que tu veuilles, 
qu'il veuille. 



que nous voulions, 
que vous vouliez, 
qu'ils veuillent. 



je bus. 
je conclus. 
je conduisis. 



que je boive, que nous buvions, 

que tu boives, que vous buviez, 

qu'il boive, qu'ils boivent. 



je cousus. 



je dis. 



66 



MODEL VERBS. 



INFINITIVE. 


PARTICIPLES. 




INDICATIVE. 


Present. 


Present. 
dcrivant. 


Past, 
^crit. 




Present. 


Ecrire, 
to write. 


j'ecris, 
tu ecris, 
il ecrit. 


nous ecrivons, 
vous ecrivez, 
ils ^crivent. 


Faire, 

to do, to make. 


faisant. 


fait. 


je fais, 
tu fais, 
il fait. 


nous faisons, 
vous faites, 
ils font. 


Lire, 
to read. 


lisant. 


lu. 


je lis, 
tu lis, 
il lit. 


nous lisons, 
vous lisez, 
ils lisent. 


Mettre, 
to put. 


mettant. 


mis. 


je mets, 
tu mets, 
il met. 


nous mettons, 
vous mettez, 
ils mettent. 


Moudre, 
to grind. 


moulant. 


moulu. 


je mouds, 
tu mouds, 
il moud. 


nous moulons, 
vous moulez, 
ils meulent. 


Naitre (etre), 
to be born. 


naissant. 


n^. 


je nais, 
tu nais, 
il nait. 


nous naissons, 
vous naissez, 
ils naissent. 


Plaindre, 
to pity. 


plaignant. 


plaint. 


je plains, 
tu plains, 
il plaint. 


nous plaignons, 
vous plaignez, 
ils plaignent. 


Plaire, 
to please. 


plaisant. 


plu. 


je plais, 
tu plais, 
il plait. 


nous plaisons, 
vous plaisez, 
ils plaisent. 


Prendre, 
to take. 


prenant. 


pris. 


je prends, 
tu prends, 
il prend. 


nous prenons, 
vous prenez, 
ils prennent. 


Rdsoudre, 
to resolve. 


r^solvant. 


resolu and 
resous. 


je resous, 
tu resous, 
il resout. 


nous r^solvons, 
vous resolvez, 
ils resolvent. 


Rire, 

to laugh. 


riant. 


ri. 


je ris, 
tu ris, 
il rit. 


nous rions, 
vous riez, 
ils rient. 


Suivre, 
to/ollow. 


suivant. 


suivi. 


je suis, 
tu suis, 
il suit. 


nous suivons, 
vous suivez, 
ils suivent. 


Traire, 
to milk. 


trayant. 


trait. 


je trais, 
tu trais, 
il trait, 


nous trayons, 
vouz trayez, 
ils traient. 


Vaincre, 
to conquer. 


vainquant. 


vaincu. 


je vaincs, 
tu vaincs, 
il vainc. 


nous vainquons, 
vous yainquez, 
ils vainquent. 


Vivre, 
to live. 


vivant. 


v&u. 


je vis, 
tu vis, 
il vit, 


nous vivons, 
vous vivez, 
ils vivent. 



INDICATIVE. 

Future, 



Past 
Definite. 



j'ecrivis. 



je fis. 



je lus. 



je fer 



MODEL VERBS. 



IMPERA- 
TIVE. 



67 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 



fais, 



faisons, que je fasse, 
faites. que tu fasses, 
qu'il fasse, 



que nous fassions, 
que vous fassiez, 
qu'ils fassent. 



je moulus. 
je naquis. 
je plaignis. 
je plus, 
je pris. 
je rdsolus. 



que je prenne, que nous prenions, 

que tu prennes, que vous preniez, 

qu'il preune, qu'ils prennent. 



je suivis. 



je vainquis. 



je v^cus. 



SECONDE PARTIE. 

DE LA SYNTAXE. 



DE LA SYNTAXE. 

CHAPITRE I. 

ANALYSE. 

La syntaxe rbgle Temploi des mots, et leur construction; 
elle d^signe la place qu'ils doivent occuper dans la proposition. 

Une phrase est une proposition, ou une collection de propo- 
sitions, formant un sens complet. 

On appelle proposition I'^nonciation d'un jugement. On 
pent distinguer par un moyen bien simple les propositions qui 
forment une phrase \ II y a autant de propositions qu'il y a 
de verbes a un mode autre que Vinfiiiitif ; par exemple : tra- 
vaillons, si nous voulons acqu^rir les moyens. II y a deux propo- 
sitions : travaillons, si nous voulons, etc., parce qu'il y a deux 
verbes a un mode personnel. 

On pent consid^rer la proposition comme grammaticale 
ou comme logique. Celle-ci n'a que trois parties : le sujet, 
le verbe et Vattribut; celle-la contient autant de parties que 
de mots. 

Le sujet et Vattribtit peuvent etre simples ou composes, com- 
plexes ou incomplexes. 

Le sujet est simple lorsqu'il n'exprime qu'un etre ou une 
collection : la vertu est aimable, la troupe est partie ; compose, 
lorsqu'il exprime plusieurs etres, ou des etres diff^rents : le 
travail et le talent sont rarement unis. 

L'attribut est simple lorsqu'il n'exprime qu'une maniere 
d'etre du sujet, comme: la vertu est aimable; compose, lors- 

71 



72 ANALYSE. 

qu'il exprime plusieurs manieres ou des manieres diff<^rentes 
du sujet : il est aimant et devoue. 

Le sujet et I'attribut sont complexes ou incomplexes selon 
qu'ils ont, ou qu'ils n'ont pas de complement. 

Le verbe est toujours le verbe <?/;-<?, et n'a jamais de com- 
plement : // aime son devoir, i.e., // est aimant son devoir. 
Cette decomposition du verbe, si fr^quente en anglais a lieu 
seulement dans I'analyse logique. 

La proposition est principale ou incidente. La proposition 
principale est celle de laquelle dependent toutes les autres 
propositions : elle pent etre absolue ou relative, selon qu'elle 
est la premiere enonc^e ou non. 

La proposition incidente s'ajoute a un terme d'une autre 
proposition pour en determiner ou expliquer la signification : 
elle pent done etre dete7'minative ou, explicative. 

L'incidente determinative explique le sens d'un terme, ou 
une circonstance essentielle au sens : elle ne saurait etre 
retranchee sans changer le sens de la phrase. L'incidente 
explicative, au contraire, pourrait etre retranch^e sans changer 
le sens de la phrase, puisqu'elle ne fait qu'expliquer un terme. 

La proposition, consid^ree dans ses parties diiferentes, pent 
etre pleine, implicite, elliptique. 

La proposition est pleine lorsque toutes ses parties sont 
exprimees ; implicite, lorsqu'elle renferme en un ou deux mots 
le sujet, le verbe et I'attribut: Etudiez ; Elliptique, lorsque 
quelques parties sont sous-entendues : Ecrivez votre lettre. 

Analyse. 

L'analyse est un moyen facile et efficace de connaitre le 
mecanisme et la construction de la phrase, et de se les rendre 
familiers. 

II y a deux especes d'analyse : l'analyse grammaticale et 
l'analyse logique. 



MODELE D ANALYSE GRAMMATICALE. 73 

L'analyse grammaticale est la decomposition d'une phrase, 
et I'examen de chaque mot qui la compose. On examine, 
done, la nature et I'esp^ce des difft^rents termes ; le genre, 
le nombre des noms, des articles, des adjectifs ; le genre, le 
norabre et la personne des pronoms ; le mode, le temps, la 
personne, le nombre, la nature ou I'espece des verbes ; le 
role que remplit chaque mot, et les rapports divers qui existent 
entre eux. 

Comme on le voit, cette analyse est la meme en anglais. 
Dans l'analyse grammaticale, la decomposition du verbe n'a 
pas lieu. 

Modele d' Analyse Grammaticale. 

Calypso ne pouvait se consoler du depart d'Ulysse. 

Calypso. — nom propre, femi. sing., sujet de ne pouvait. 

ne. — negation, affectant pouvait. 

pouvait. — troisieme pers. sing., imparfait de I'indicatif du 
verbe neutre pouvoir, temps primitifs : pouvoir, 
pouvant, pu, j'e peux, je pus. 

se consoler. — infinitif present du verbe refl^chi se consoler^ se 
coiisolant, console, je me console, je me consolai. 
(On peut aussi analyser les deux mots s^par^- 
ment : se, pronom personnel, de la troisieme 
personne, femi. sing., se rapporte a Calypso, 
regime direct de consoler. Consoler, inf. present, 
etc.) 

du. — art. contract^, masculin sing., regime indirect de se con- 
soler et determine depart. 

depart. — nom. com., masc. sing., regime indirect de se consoler. 

d\ — preposition contractee — de — etablit un rapport entre 
depart et Ulysse. 

Ulysse. — nom propre, masc. sing., regime de la preposition de. 



74 MODELE D ANALYSE LOGIQUE. 

L'analyse logique est la decomposition de la phrase, et 
r^tude de chaque proposition qui la compose. On ^tudie, 
done, la nature de la proposition, principale absolue ou relative, 
incidente explicative ou determinative, pleine, implicite, ellip- 
tique ; le sujet et I'attribut, simple ou compost, complexe ou 
incomplexe (par complement on entend ici tout ce qui appar- 
tient a I'attribut) ; le verbe, et c'est toujours le verbe etre^ 
comme on I'a vu, dans ses diff^rents modes. 

Modele d' Analyse Liogique. 

' Honorons Dieu, de qui nous tenons tout. 

Cette phrase renferme deux propositions : 

Honorons Dieu, proposition principale absolue et elliptique 
parceque nous, sujet, est sous-entendu. Le sujet, nous, est 
simple et incomplexe. Le verbe, soyo?is ; I'attribut hono7'a?it, 
simple et complexe, a cause du complement Dieu. 

De qui nous tenons tout, proposition incidente explicative ; 
le sujet, nous, est simple et incomplexe: le verbe, sommes ; 
I'attribut tenant, est simple et complexe, a cause des comple- 
ments tout et de qui. 

CHAPITRE n. 

DU NOM. 
Du Genre de Quelques Noms. 

II y a des noms qui changent de genre en changeant de 
nombre. 

A7nour est feminin au pluriel, lorsqu'il signifie I'attachement 
d'un sexe pour I'autre. 

Aigle, dans le sens d'enseigne et d'armoiries, est feminin ; 
mais il est masculin dans toutes ses autres acceptions. 



DU GENRE DE QUELQUES NOMS. 75 

Delice^ orgue, sont du f^minin au pluriel. 

Auto7)iiie est des deux genres ; mais le masculin est prdf^- 
rable. Gt^n^ralement, il est masculin, si I'adjectif le precede, 
et feminin, si I'adjectif le suit. 

Couple J marquant le nombre deux, est feminin : une couple 
de perdrix, une couple d'oeufs ; mais il est masculin lorsqu'il 
repr^sente I'assemblage de deux etres pouvant etre consider^s 
comme une seule cause : un couple d^ainis, un couple defripons. 

Paire est toujours ft^minin, et signifie : 

1. Deux choses qui sont ensemble par n^cessit^ d'usage : 
une paire de gants. 

2. Une chose compos^e de parties, faisant les memes fonc- 
tions : une paire de ciseaux. 

3. Ajoute au nombre I'id^e d'association : une paire Men 
assortie. 

Enfant est des deux genres au singulier ; mais il est toujours 
masculin au pluriel. 

Foudre^ employ^ au figure, est masculin. 

Gens : ce mot est un peu bizarre dans ses exigeances ; ainsi 
il veut au fi^minin tous les adjectifs qui le precedent, et au 
masculin tous ceux qui le suivent : Toutes les vieilles gens sont 
indulgents. II y a trois exceptions a cette regie : 

1. On emploie le masculin avant gens lorsque tout est le seul 
adjectif ; tous les gens d'esprit pensent comme vous. 

2. On emploie le masculin lorsque gens est pr^c^d^ de tout 
et d'un adjectif n'ayant qu'une terminaison pour les deux 
genres : Tous les habiles gens ne sont pas des coquins. La 
meme chose a lieu lorsque gens est pr^c^d6 de plusieurs ad- 
jectifs pourvu que le dernier n'ait qu'une terminaison : les faux 
honnetes gens, mais ; que lies ennuyeuses gens. 

3. On emploie le masculin lorsque gens ^veille surtout I'id^e 
d'homme, ce qui a lieu lorsqu'il est suivi de la proposition de. 



76 DU NOMBRE DE QUELQUES SUBSTANTIFS. 

et d'un nom formant avec gens une expression composee : gens 
de lettres, ge-ns d'affaires, gens de robe, etc. 

Hymne est f^minin dans le sens de chant d'eglise. 

Quelqiie chose, dans le sens de ime chose, est masculin ; s'il 
y a quelque chose de nouveau, je vous demande de me le dire ; 
mais il est feminin quand il signifie quelle que soit la chose : 
quelque chose qu'il m'ait dite, je n'ai pu le croire. 

Personne est feminin quand il est accompagn^ de I'article 
ou d'un adjectif : Toutes trois me sont encore des personnes 
Hen cheres ; mais sans article, et dans un sens g^n^ral, il est 
masculin. 

Du Nombre de Quelques Substantifs. 

Les noms emprunt^s aux langues ^trangeres prennent s au 
pluriel, si un frequent usage les a fait passer dans notre langue : 
bravo, des bravos, op^ra, des operas, des quolibets. Mais ils 
restent invariables lorsqu'ils signifient des prieres, des hymnes, 
dont ils sont en general les premiers mots. 

Ils sont encore invariables s'ils sont composes de plusieurs 
mots, comme : des Te Deum, des Ex Voto, etc. 

Les substantifs Strangers, qui ont, dans leur langue propre, 
une forme particuliere pour le pluriel, gardent cette forme en 
frangais : quintetto, carbonaro, etc., pluriel : quintetti, car- 
bonari. 

Les mots invariables de leur nature ne changent pas leur 
terminaison au pluriel, lorsqu'ils sont employes comme sub- 
stantifs : les pourquoi, les oui et les non, les on dit, il ne faut 
pas croire les on dit. 

Les noms propres, en general, sont invariables. Cependant 
ils varient s'ils sont employes pour designer des hommes 
semblables a ceux dont on emprunte le nom. 

Un Auguste peut aisement faire des Virgiles. — Boileau. 



DU NOMBRE DE QUELQUES SUBSTANTIFS. JJ 

Les noms propres changent au pluriel, s'ils peuvent etre 
consid^r^s comme nom commun a une race royale, a line 
famille illustre. 

La Seine a ses Bourbons, le Tibre a ses Cesars. — Voltaire. 

Le nombre des substantifs composes suit la nature et le sens 
des mots dont ils sont formes. On appelle nom compost, des 
expressions substantives dont les parties distinctes sont rap- 
proch^es par le trait d'union. 

Le substantif et I'adjectif sont les seuls mots susceptibles, par 
leur nature, de prendre la marque du pluriel. De ce principe 
r^sultent les cinq regies suivantes. 

Premiere Regle. — Si un substantif compost est form6 de 
deux noms, dont le second est un qualificatif du premier ; ils 
prennent tous deux la marque du pluriel : des oiseaux-mouches^ 
des chiens-loups. Mais s'il sont unis par ellipse, le premier 
prend la marque du pluriel, et le second varie ou ne varie pas, 
selon qu'il ^veille I'id^e d'unite ou de plurality. II faudra done 
^crire : des appuis-fnain (peinture) ; des hdtels-Dieu; des 
bains-marie, 

Deuxieme Regle. — Si les noms sont unis par une proposi- 
tion, le premier seul prend la marque du pluriel : des ciels-de- 
lit. Mais ils restent tous deux invariables lorsqu'ils servent de 
regime a un terme principal ellipse : des pied-a-terre, des coq- 
d-Vdne (discours sans suite), des tete-a-tete (seul a seul). 

Troisieme Regle. — Si le nom compost est formO d'un sub- 
stantif et d'un adjectif qui le qualifie, ils prennent tous deux la 
marque du pluriel : basse-taille, des basses- tallies ; mais on 
Ocrira : 

Des blanc-seings (des seings en blanc). 
Des terre-pleins (des lieux pleins de terre). 
Des chevau-lOgers. 
Des grand'm^res, des grand'messes. 



y8 DE l'article. 

Lorsque dans la composition d'un nom il entre un mot pris 
adjectivement, et qui ne s'emploie pas seul, ce mot prend aussi 
la marque du pluriel : pie-grieche, des pies-grieches ; loup- 
garou, des loups-garous ; porte-cochere, des portes-cocheres. 

Les particules initiatives vice, semi, quasi, ex, restent toujours 
invariables : des vice-xovs,, des ^:r-voto, des semi-Xon's,, etc. 

QuATRiEME Regle. — Si un nom compost est form^ d'un sub- 
stantif et d'un mot invariable de sa nature, le substantif seul 
prend la marque du pluriel : des contre-coM-^^, des avant- 
coureurs. 

Mais on ^crira : des serre-tete, des reveille-matin ^ des contre- 
poison, parcequ'il y a unit^ dans I'id^e. 

Essuie-mains, 

Porte- mouchettes, 

Cure-dents, 

Porte-clefs, s'^crivent de la meme maniere au singulier et au 
pluriel. 

CiNQuiEME Regle. — Lorsqu'un nom compost est form6 de 
mots invariables, aucun ne prend le signe du pluriel : ^Qspince- 
sans-rire. 

CHAPITRE III. 

DE L'ARTICLE. 

On emploie l'article devant les noms communs quand ils 
L-ont pris dans un sens d^termin^ : Lhomme quefai vu. 

On emploie l'article du, de la, des, avant les substantifs pris 
dans un sens partitif; alors l'article correspond a I'anglais, 
some, any : Toujours la patrie a des charmes pour nous. — 
Vous avez de la fortune. 

Mais on emploie la proposition de au lieu de l'article — 



DE L ARTICLE. 79 

1. Avant un substantif partitif pr^c^d^ d'un adjectif: de 
bon pain. Si cependant I'adjectif et le substantif forment 
une ■ seule expression, il faut employer Particle : Je veux a la 
campagne des petits pots et de bon potage. On emploie 
toujours Particle quand I'adjectif est plac6 apr^s le nom. 

2. Avant un substantif complement d'un collectif ou d'un 
adverbe de quantity : une multitude de peuples, beaucoup de 
nations. 

3. Avant un nom regime d'un verbe actif accompagn^ d'une 
negation : Je ne vousferai pas de reproches. 

Dans ces deux derniers cas, on emploie I'article au lieu 
de la proposition, si le nom est suivi d'un qualificatif ou 
d'une proposition incidente determinative : Je ne vous ferai 
pas des reproches frivoles; il reste peu des fruits qu'on a 
cueillis. 

Les adverbes plus, mieux, moins, prennent le, la, les, pour 
exprimer une comparaison; et le simplement, pour exprimer 
un superlatif absolu. 

Apres les adverbes bien, la plupart, on emploie toujours 
Particle : bien des pauvres, la plupart des Sieves so fit studieux. 

On rOpete Particle — 

1. Avant chaque nom employ^ comme sujet ou comme 
regime : Le cceur, V esprit, les mceurs, tout gagne a la culture. 

2. Avant deux adjectifs unis par et, ou, lorsqu'ils ne qualifient 
pas le meme substantif: le vieux et le jeune soldat; mais 
on dira : le vieux et brave soldat. 

3. Avant les adverbes plus, mieux, moins, lorsqu'ils modifient 
plusieurs adjectifs servant d'attribut a un seul substantif: Les 
dogmes les plus v?'ais et les plus saints peuvent avoir les plus 
mauvaises consequences. 

On emploie Particle avant les noms des diffOrentes parties 
du corps, ainsi qu'avant les qualitOs de Pesprit, lorsqu'ils se 
rapportent au sujet ou au regime de la phrase : Jai mal a 



So DE l'article. 

/a iefe ; il s'est casse le bras. La langue anglaise remplace 
cet article par le pronom possessif. 

On emploie Tarticle dans les phrases descriptives elliptiques : 
II s'acheminait vers la ville, le parapluie sous le bras. En 
anglais cet article est remplac^ par la preposition with. 

On fait usage de Particle devant les unites de poids et 
de mesures : La viande se vend quarante sous le kilogramme. 

Li* Article avant les Noms Propres. 

On emploie l'article avant les noms de contr^es, de pro- 
vinces, de mers, et de montagnes : La France et rAmerique 
sont unies par les liens de Pamitie ; les Montagnes Rocheuses. 
Mais les noms de contrees rejettent l'article lorsqu'ils sont 
precedes de la preposition en: en France, en Amerique, 
en Angle terre. lis rejettent aussi l'article, et prennent la 
preposition de, lorsqu'ils servent de qualificatif a un autre 
nom : la reine d^Angleterre, le roi de Prusse, travailler pour le 
roi de Prusse (perdre son temps) . 

Les noms de provinces ne prennent pas l'article lorsqu'ils 
sont pris de quelque ville : Nice est un pays delicieux. 

On emploie l'article avant les noms propres qui signifient 
des productions de I'esprit : le Cinna de Corneille, rAihalie 
de Racine. 

On emploie l'article pluriel avant les noms propres pour les 
distinguer avec plus de force : Les Milton, les Montesquieu, les 
Bossuet nous ont eclaires par leurs ecrits, ou lorsque ces noms 
propres sont employes comme noms communs : Tous les con- 
querants ne sont pas des Alexandres, 



ADJECTIF QUALIFICATIF. 8 1 

CHAPITRE IV. 

DE L'ADJECTIF. 
I. — Adjectif Qualificatif. 

L'adjectif prend le genre et le nombre du nom ou du pro- 
nom qu'il qualifie : un enfant diligenty unefille studieuse. 

Si l'adjectif qualifie deux ou plusieurs noms ou pronoms au 
singulier, il se met au pluriel. Et si les noms ou pronoms sont 
de genres diff^^rents, il se met au pluriel masculin : une applica- 
tion et un travail continuels. 

Si l'adjectif, qualifiant des noms ou pronoms de diff^rents 
genres, a une terminaison particuliere pour chaque genre, il est 
mieux d'^noncer le nom ou pronom masculin, le dernier : // a 
montre une prudence et un courage etonnants. 

L'adjectif plac^ aprfes deux ou plusieurs noms s'accorde 
avec le dernier — 

Lorsque les noms sont synonymes ou presque synonymes ; 

Lorsqu'ils sont unis par la conjonction ou ; 

Lorsqu'ils sont places par gradation. ^ 

L'adjectif plac6 apres deux noms unis par comme^ de meme 
que, ainsi que, etc., s'accorde avec le premier : Bautruche a la 
tete, ainsi que le cou, garnie de duvet. 

Tout adjectif employ^ comma adverbe reste toujours invari- 
able : Ces livres coutent cher. 

L'adjectif demi reste invariable plac^ avant son substantif ; 
mais il en prend le genre, sans en prendre le nombre, quand il 
est plac6 apr^s : Je n'aime ni les demi-vengeances ni les demi- 
fripons. II pese vingt livres et demie. 

II prend la marque du pluriel lorsqu'il est employ^ comme 
substantif : Cette horloge sonne les heures et les demies. 

Nu reste invariable lorsqu'il precede un nom employ^ sans 



82 DE L ADJECTIF. 

Tarticle ; dans tous les autres cas, il suit la r^gle g^n^rale : alle? 
nu pieds ; toute nue la verite nous blesse ; se tenir la tete nue. 

Feu s'accorde en genre et en nombre avec son substantif 
lorsqu'il le precede immediatement : la feue reitie ; mais il 
reste invariable s'il en est s^pare ou par I'article ou par un 
adjectif d^terminatif : feu la reine,fcu ma mere. 

Quand un adjectif compost est forme de deux adjectifs, tous 
deux suivent la regie g^nerale : Une ecole pour les fetjwies 
sourdes-mueftes ; except^ les trois adjectifs ?m, dejjii, semi, qui 
restent toujours invariables : les mi-pariis, des peuples demi- 
barbareSy semi-periodiques. 

Quand un adjectif compose est form^ de deux adjectifs 
dont le premier est employe comme adverbe, le second seul 
s'accorde : des enfants nouveau-nes. Frais-cueilli et tout puis- 
sant sont les seules exceptions : des fleurs fraiches-cueillies ; 
des personnes toute s-puiss antes. 

Les deux adjectifs breche-dents, chevre-pieds, s'^crivent tou- 
jours de la meme mani^re. 

Si un adjectif compost est form4 d'un adjectif et d'un mot 
invariable, I'adjectif s'accorde : des enfants bien-aimes. 

II est impossible d'etablir par une regie sure quand I'adjectif 
doit pr^c^der le substantif, ou quand il doit le sqivre ; on 
pent dire cependant que I'adjectif suit ordinairement le sub- 
stantif. 

II y a des adjectifs qui changent la signification du substan- 
tif selon qu'ils le precedent ou le suivent : 

Brave, un brave homme (homme de probite). 

un homme brave (homme de courage). 
Honnete, un honnete homme (homme de probite). 

un homme honnete (homme poll). 
Pauvre, un pauvre homme (homme sans capacite). 

un homme pauvre (homme sans fortune). 
Grand, un grand homme (homme celebre). 

un homme grand (homme de haute taille). 



ADJECTIFS DETERMINATIFS. 8^ 

Galantf un galant homme (qui a de la bravoure). 

un homme galant (qui a de la grace, qui sail plaire). 

Beaucoup d'autres adjectifs entrent dans cette categoric : 
I'usage seul peut les faire connaitre. 

Un adjectif peut avoir un complement ; mais c'est toujours un 
complement indirect, c'est-a-dire, precede d'une proposition. 

Si deux adjectifs rOgissent la meme proposition, ils peuvent 
avoir un regime commun : Le professeur est utile et cher a ses 
Heves. Ce serait incorrect de dire : Le professeur est utile et 
cheri de ses Heves, parceque utile rOgit a, et chOri, de, 

II. — Adjectifs D^terniinatifs. 

Ces adjectifs suivent les memes regies d'accord que les ad- 
jectifs qualificatifs. II y a cependant quelques exceptions ; nous 
allons les signaler. 

On emploie I'adjectif cardinal au lieu de I'adjectif ordinal — 

Pour indiquer les heures, les jours (excepts le premier jour du 
mois : le premier Juillet), et les annOes : II est six heures ; le 
vingt-deux juin ; I'an mil huit cent quatre-vingt-douze. 

Pour indiquer I'ordre des princes : Henri quatre ; Georges 
trois ; mais on peut Ogalement dire : Georges deux, ou Georges 
second. 

L'adjectif possessif se remplace par I'article toutes les fois 
que le sens de la phrase est clair, c'est-a-dire, que le possesseur 
est clairement connu: J^ai mal a la jambe. 

Mais il faut faire usage de I'adjectif possessif — 

1. Lorsque I'usage de I'article rendrait le sens ambigu : Je 
vols la jambe enfier. La jambe de qui? Ovidemment il faut 
se servir de I'adjectif possessif. - 

2. Lorsqu'il s'agit de quelque chose d'habituel: J'aima mi- 
graine ; c'est-a-dire, je souffre frequemment de la migraine. 

3. Lorsqu'on veut donner plus de force a I'expression : Vcjd 
je levai ma main pour le f rapper. 



84 DE l'adjectif. 

Les adjectifs possessifs notre^ votre, leiir, se mettent au 
pluriel lorsqu'ils se rapportent a plusieurs objets pris collective- 
ment : Ces dajnes avaient oublie leurs eventails. 

Son, sa, ses, lezcr, leurs, ne qualifient ordinairement que des 
substantifs en relation avec des noms de personne ou de chose 
personnifi^e. 

Ceux qui out cru aneantir le christianisme en allumant des 
biHchers ont meconnu son esprit. 

Lorsqu'ils qualifient des substantifs en relation avec des noms 
de chose, on les remplace par I'article pr^c^d^ ou suivi du pro- 
no m en : Si la mollesse est douce, la suite en est cruelle, au lieu 
de : Si la mollesse est douce, sa suite est cruelle. 

Exception. — On emploie son, sa, ses, leur, leurs, quand le 
nom de chose est exprime comme sujet de la proposition : La 
cajftpagne a ses agrements. 

v^uand le substantif poss^d^ est le complement d'une pro- 
position : Washington est une ville remarquable, les etrangers 
admirent la beaute de ses edifices. 

L'adjectif possessif se repete avant chaque substantif: Son 
pere, sa mere, ses f re res et ses soeurs ont quitte la ville hier. 

Quand tout modifie un adjectif ou un adverbe, il est adverbe 
lui-meme : Ces fleurs so?it tout aussi fraiches qti'Mer. Cepen- 
dant si l'adjectif modifie par tout est du fOminin et commence 
par une consonne ou une h aspirOe, tout varie : Elle est toute 
honteuse. 

Chaque est toujours suivi immOdiatement du substantif qu'il 
modifie : Chaque pays a ses charmes ; et ne doit jamais s'em- 
ployer pour chacun. 

Ainsi on ne dira pas : Ces livres coiUent cinq francs chaque ; 
mais bien : cinq francs chacun. 

Quelque est susceptible de quatre modifications : 

I. Quelque, suivi d'un verbe, s'ecrit en deux mots, quel 
devient un veritable adjectif, et s'accorde en genre et en 



ADJECTIFS DETERMINATIFS. 8$ 

nombre avec son substantif, et que devient conjonction : Quels 
que soient les humains, ilfaut vivre avec eux. 

2. Que/que, suivi d'un nom ou d'un pronom qu'il modifie, 
en prend le nombre : Priiue^ quelques raisons que vous me 
puissiez dire, 

3. Quelque^ suivi d'un adjectif, d'un participe, ou d'un ad- 
verbe qu'il modifie, est adverbe : Quelque puissants quHls soient. 

4. Quelque ^ suivi d'un adjectif et d'un nom, reste invariable 
s'il modifie I'adjectif, et varie s'il modifie le nom : 

Quelqm bons ecrivains qu'ils soient, 

Quelques vains lauriers que promette la guerre 

On peut etre heros sans ravager la terre. — Boileau. 

Nul et chacun sont toujours du singulier, a moins qu'ils ne 
modifient des noms qui ne s'emploient qu'au pluriel: fune- 
rallies , pleurs, troupes ; nulles funerailles, aucunes troupes. 

Meme est adjectif — 

Quand il precede le nom : toujours les memes defauts. 

Place apres un pronom ou un seul substantif: Eux-memes, its 
devinrent jaloux ; ces murs memes peuvent avoir des yeux. 

II est adverbe — 

Quand il modifie un verbe : Exe?7ipts de maux reels, les 
hoi7imes s'enforment meme de chimeriques. 

Quand il modifie un adjectif: II faut obeir aux lois meme 
injustes. 

Place apres plusieurs substantifs : Les animauxj les plantes 
7neme etaient des dieux. 

On re pete I'adjectif d^terminatif — 

Avant chaque substantif: ces officiers et ces soldats. 

Devant deux adjectifs unis par et, mais qui ne qualifient pas 
le meme substantif: ces grandes et ces pe fifes maisoiu. 

Mais on dira : en recompense de vos bons et utiles services, 
parce qu'ici les deux adjectifs qualifient le meme substantif. 



86 DES PRONOMS. 

CHAPITRE V. 

DES PRONOMS. 

On ne doit pas representer par un pronom un substantif 
employ^ sans aucun d^terminatif, et exprimant une meme id^e 
avec le verbe ou la proposition dont il est le regime. On ne 
dira pas : Je vous fais grace, elle est meritee, 

Ce serait mettre de la confusion dans la phrase que de 
rOpOter le meme pronom avec des rapports diffOrents : j'ai lu 
avec plaisir cet ouvrage qui a Ote compose par une personne 
qui est versee dans les sciences qui ont pour objet I'etude de 
la nature. II faut changer la construction. 

Le pronom ne doit jamais etre construit d'une maniere 
Equivoque : Les Americains imitent les Roinains dans tout ce 
qu'ils ont de bon. Mais : Les Americains . . . ceux-ci ont 
de bon. 

Les regies d'accord de I'adjectif qualificatif rOgissent I'accord 
du pronom. 

Pronoms Personnels. 

Le pronom personnel precede le verbe dont il est le sujet : 

Mais nous nous reverrons. Adieu. Je sors contente : 
J'ai voulu voir; j'ai vu. — Racine. 

II se place aprfes le verbe — 

1. Dans les phrases interrogatives : Ecrit-il? Dans les 
temps simples il se place apres le verbe, et dans les temps 
composes entre I'auxiliaire et le participe : Avait-il ecrit? 
Aurait-il etc aime ? 

2. Dans les phrases exclamatives : Est-il aimable ! 

3. Si le verbe est au subjonctif et que la conjonction ne 
soit pas exprimOe : Puisse-je de ??ies yeux y voir tomber la 
foudre. — Corneille. 



PRONOMS PERSONNELS. 8/ 

4. Lorsque la proposition annonce une citation : Je vats, 
disait-il, vous raconter s.on histoire. 

5. Si le verbe est pr^c^d^ de qiielque adverbe : aussi bien^ 
en vain, petct-etre ; mais alors I'inversion n'est pas de rigueur. 
On pent ^galement dire : Aussi ai-je fait tous mes efforts ; ou, 
Aussi fai fait tous mes efforts. 

Le pronom personnel, employ^ comme complement, se met 
imm^diatement avant le verbe qui le gouverne : lis m''o7it 
trahi. 

Exceptions. — Si le verbe est a I'imperatif, le pronom suit le 
verbe si la phrase est affirmative : Rends-moi chretienne et 
libre ; et le precede si la phrase est negative : Ne Voffensez 
pas, 

S'il y a deux imp^ratifs, le pronom regime du second imp6- 
ratif pourrait le pr^ceder : Polissez-le sans cesse et le repolissez. 

Lorsqu'un pronom personnel est complement d'un infinitif 
dependant d'un autre verbe, il pent se mettre entre les deux 
verbes ou avant le premier : Je vous viens chercher ; ou, Je 
viens vous che?rher. 

Si un verbe a I'imperatif a deux pronoms pour regime, le 
regime direct doit s'^noncer le premier : Donnez-le-moi. 
' Moi, toi, le, la, complements directs construits avec y, par 
euphonic, se placent apres ce pronom : Envoyez-y-moi ; mais 
cette forme doit etre evit^e. 

Le pronom personnel, employ^ comme sujet, doit se r^p^ter 
avant chaque verbe, except^ quand les propositions sont unies 
par I'une des conjonctions, et, ou, ni, mais : II est sava7it, 
quoiqu'll soil bienjeune. 

La repetition du pronom comme sujet donne plus de gravite 
et d'energie : il eclaire, il aveugle ; il conda7nne, il pardonne. 

Si le pronom n'est exprime qu'une fois, la pensee a plus 
de vivacite : II prit, quitta, i-eprit la cuirasse et la haire. 

La repetition du pronom depend du gout lorsqu'on passe 



8S DESPKONOMS. 

d'un temps a un autre, du sens affirmatif au sens negatif ; mais 
la repetition est necessaire lorsqu'on .passe du sens ndgatif 
au sens affirmatif: 

Tu n'as point d'ailes, et tu veux voler? — rampe. — Voltaire. 

Le pronom personnel, employ^ comme regime, se r^pfete 
avant chaque verbe a un temps simple ; mais cette repetition 
est libre avant les temps composes : 

II detourne les yeux, le plaint et le revere. — Racine. 

Si les pronoms forment des complements de nature diflfe- 
rente, ils doivent etre repet^s : // nous a recompenses, et -nous a 
adresse des eloges. 

Le pronom soi se dit des personnes et des choses : Chacun 
pense a soi ; Paimant attire le fer a soi. Quand il se dit des 
personnes, il a toujours un sens vague : 07i doit rarement parler 
de soi, a moins qu'il ne soit employe pour eviter une equivoque ; 
mais alors il se rapporte toujours au sujet : En re7nplissant les 
volontes de son pere, ce jeune homme travaille pour soi. Pour 
lui serait Equivoque. 

Les pronoms leur, lui, eux, elk, elles, ne s'appliqucnt 
qu'aux personnes ; y et e7i s'appliquent aux choses ; ils 
peuvent aussi s'appliquer aux personnes : Jls aiment leurs 
parents, et en sont aimes. 

Quoique je parle beaucoup de vous, j'y pense encore davantage jour 
et nuit. — Alme. de Sevigne. 

Pronoms D^monstratifs. 

L'emploi du pronom demonstratif ce est d'un usage frequent. 
II remplace les pronoms //, ils, elle, elles, comme sujet d'une 
proposition dont I'attribut est un nom ou un pronom : Loin 
d'etre des dieux, ce ne sont pas mcme des homines. 

Devant le verbe etre, on emploie ce pour donner a la phrase 
plus de clarte et d'energie. 



PRONOMS DEMONSTRATIFS, 89 

On emploie ce devant eire dans le second membre — 

1. Lorsque la phrase commence par ce suivi d'un pronom 
relatif : Ce qui est certain^ c'est que le monde est de travers. 

2. Si le substantif qui suit le verbe et7'e dans le second 
membre est au pluriel, ce devient n^cessaire ; il est facultatif 
si le substantif est au singulier : Ce qu'on souffre avec le 77ioins 
de patience J ce sont les injustices. 

3. Lorsque le premier membre a une certaine ^tendue, et 
qu'il sert d'attribut : Chez eux ces homines sont des despotes, a 
la cour ce sont des valets. En anglais, il se traduit par le 
pronom personnel. 

4. Dans les phrases interrogatives, on emploie ce, lorsqu'en 
anglais on emploie le pronom d^monstratif : Sont-ce vos amis ? 
Ou lorsqu'on veut attirer I'attention sur une personne ou une 
chose qui figure dans I'attribut : Ce n'est pas de I'or ; c'est du 
cuivre. 

5. Ce remplace cela devant le verbe etre, et quelquefois 
aussi devant le verbe devoir: Cest Men, ce doit etre Men beau, 
tout le monde V admire. 

6. On emploie ce lorsque le premier membre de la phrase 
contient deux ou plusieurs infinitifs : Etudier les anciens, lire 
les modernes, c^est son occupation principale. 

7. Lorsque le verbe etre est entre deux infinitifs, I'emploie 
de ce est n^cessaire : Obliger ceux qu'on aime,c'est s'obliger soi- 
meme. 

8. On emploie ce comme antecedent d'un pronom relatif, et 
aprcs tout,\)Tonom ind^fini : Voild ce qui m'etonne; nous avons 
tout ce qu'il nous faut. 

Ce, complement direct d'un verbe, s'ellipse mais seulement 
avant le pronom relatif quoi, pr^c^d^ d'une proposition : Vous 
ne savez pas a quoi sert Vinsecte. 

Celui, ceux, celle, celles, exprimant une idee genOrale, doivent 



90 DES PRONOMS. 

etre d^termin^s par un complement indirect : Les defauts du 
pj'ince sont ceux d'un hom?ne ai??iadk. 

Ou par un pronom relatif qui suit immediatement : Ceux qui 
etudient font des progres. 

Ceci se rapporte a ce qui suit : II y avait ceci de particulier, 
qu'il fallait toujours etre agr^able. 

Cela rappelle une id^e ^nonc^e pr^cedemment : // a dit cela. 

Celui-ci, celle-ci, par opposition a celui-la, celle-la, de- 
signent les objets les plus rapproches ou dont on a parl6 en 
dernier lieu ; et celui-la, etc., les objets lez plus ^loignes ou 
dont on a parl^ en premier lieu. lis ont le meme emploi que 
leurs correspondants en anglais. 

Pronoms Possessifs. 

Le pronom possessif doit toujours se rapporter a un sub- 
stantif ^nonce pr^c^demment : Tes ecrits sont plus populaires 
que les leurs. 

Le mien, le . tien, etc., s'emploient quelquefois comme 
substantifs : Le mien, le tien n^ entrent pas dans cette niaison. 

En conversation famili^re, on peut dire : un mien aifii. 

Pronoms Relatifs. 

Ce pronom est toujours exprim^ en frangais, et s'accorde 
en genre, en nombre, et en personne avec son antecedent. 
D'ou il suit qu'on doit rapprocher le pronom relatif de son 
antecedent autant que possible, de maniere a montrer claire- 
ment leur correspondance : Je chante ce heros qui decouv7'it 
VAmerique. 

On ne dira done pas : Oti trouve des maximes dans ses 
discours qui sont contraii'es a la morale. II faut changer la 
construction, et dire : On trouve dans ses discours des maxi7nes 
qui, etc. 



PRONOMS RELATIFS. 9 1 

L^adjectif ne peut servir d'ant^c^dent au pronom relatif 
s'il n'est pr^cdd^ de I'article. On dira done : Vous etes le 
seul qui ait r^ussi ; parceque seul est pr^c^d^ de I'article, et 
devient I'ant^ct^dent du relatif qui. Nous sonimes deux qui 
avons triompJiL Ici I'adjectif deux n'a pas I'article, et ne 
peut etre I'ant^c^dent de qui ; nous est I'ant^c^dent. 

Qui, employ^ comme sujet, et que, comme regime, se 
disent ^galement des personnes et des choses, et sont des deux 
genres et des deux nombres. 

Qui, regime d'un proposition, ne se dit que des personnes, 
ou des choses personnifiOes. Pour les choses on le remplace 
par lequel, laquelle : L'Otude a laquelle je me livre. Lequel, 
laquelle, s'emploient aussi pour les personnes, lorsqu'ils sont 
le regime d'une preposition : Les voyageurs avec lesquels (ou 
avec qui) nous sommes venus. 

Lequel, duquel, laquelle, de laquelle, remplacent qui, que, 
donf, pour Oviter une Equivoque : J'ai vu le mari de voire 
soeur, qui viendra nous voir. Je dois recevoir une lettre de 
me s parents, que f attends avec impatience. La bonte de Dieu, 
dontje connais la grandeur. II faut remplacer qui par lequel, 
que par laquelle, dont par de laquelle. 

Dont exprime la relation simplement : Voici I'agent dont 
je vous ai parl6. Oil, d'oii, par oil, expriment une idOe 
d'origine, de sortie, de circonstances, de temps, et de lieu : La 
ville d^oiije viens. 

On emploie dont pour exprimer une relation morale, I'idOe 
d'etre nO, d'etre issu : La maison dont il sort est illustre ; et 
d'oii pour exprimer une relation physique, la sortie d'un lieu. 

Oil s'emploie aussi dans le sens de auquel, dans lequel, 
etc. 



92 DES PR0N0M3. 

Pronoms Ind^finis. 

On est singulier et masculin de sa nature; mais s'il se 
rapporte sp^cialement a une femme, il devient f^minin, et 
meme pluriel, s'il s'applique a plusieurs : A voire age, mafiUe, 
on est Men curieuse. On n' est pas heureux, quand on s'aime et 
qu'on est separes. 

Autrui, employ^ comme regime indirect, se dit des per- 
sonnes et des choses : les biens d' autrui. 

Chacun, pr^c^de d'un pluriel, veut apres lui. tantot son, sa, 
ses, tantot leur, leurs. 

II veut son, sa, ses, quand il suit le complement direct, ou 
que le verbe n'a pas de complement direct : Les deux rots 
faisaient chanter des Te-Deum, chacun dans son camp. Et 
leur, leurs, lorsqu'il precede le complement direct : 

* Les langues ont chacune leur bizarrerie. — Boileau. 

En general, on emploie leur, leurs, aprfes chacun lorsque 
le regime est essentiel au sens du verbe : Mettei ces livres 
chacun a leur place. Et so7i, sa, ses, lorsque le regime ne Test 
pas. 

L^un et V autre, exprimant Tid^e de plurality, le verbe se met 
au pluriel : L'un et V autre ofit tort; mais le substantif qui suit 
run et r autre, se met au singulier : Lun et V autre consul 
suivaient ses etendards. — Corneille. L'un V autre exprime 
Tid^e de r^ciprocite entre deux objets seulement ; les uns les 
autres, entre plusieurs objets. 

Lorsque Pun et V autre est regime d'un verbe, on se sert d'un 
pronom personnel pour exprimer ce regime qui se place avant 
le verbe : Je les at vus Vun et r autre. Je veux leur parler a 
Pun et a V autre. 

Quelqu'un demande la proposition de avant le participe 
passe qui le suit : Est-il quelqu'un de tue ? 



DU VERBE. 93 

Personne, pronom ind(§fini, est masculin, et demande la 
negation ne apres lui : Personne n'est assez sot pour le croire. 

Persomie, substantif, est toujours fc^minin, et suit les regies 
du substantif. 

Quiconque ne se dit que des personnes. S'il est employ^ 
dans la premiere partie de la phrase, on omet il dans la 
seconde : Quiconque fait bien a droit a la recompense ; mais on 
emploie //, si le verbe est au subjonctif: Quiconque ne sait 
souffrir, quHl 7ie s' expose pas au danger. 

CHAPITRE VI. 

DU VERBE. 

Tout verbe, a un mode personnel, doit avoir un sujet avec 
lequel il s'accorde en nombre et en personne : Je viens dans 
son temple. 

Si le sujet est compost de plusieurs noms ou pronoms 
singuliers, le verbe se met au pluriel, et s'accorde avec la 
personne qui a la priority : Nabal et moi admirions la bonte 
des dieux. Toi et lui, vous etes heureux. 

Le verbe, quoiqu'ayant plusieurs sujets singuliers, se met au 
singulier et s'accorde avec le dernier — 

1. Lorsqu'ils sont synonymes, ou presque synonymes : 

Le noir venin, le fiel de leurs ecrits, 
N'excite en moi que le plus froid mepris. 

2. Lorsque les noms sont places par gradation, et forment une 
espece d'^numeration : Ce sacrifice, voire interet, voire honneur, 
Dieu Vexige. 

3. Lorsque I'^num^ration se termine par un terme qui ren- 
ferme tous les autres : Le temps, les biens, la vie, tout est a la 
patrie. — Gresset. 



94 DU VERBE. 

4. Lorsqiie les noms sont unis par les conjonctions ou, aussi 
bien que, ai?tsi que, etc. : Ou ton sang ou le mien lavera cette 
injure. 

Remarques. — Ni Vun ni V autre, et tout sujet dont les 
parties sont unies par la conjonction ni, exprimant la plurality, 
demandent le verbe au pluriel : Ni Vuii ni V autre ne sotit 
dons; a moins qu'un seul des mots unis par ni puisse faire 
Taction du verbe : Ni lui, ni voire pere ne sera nomme 
ambassadeur, 

Lorsque les parties du sujet unies par la conjonction ou 
sont de differentes personnes, le verbe se met au pluriel, et 
s'accorde avec la personne qui a la priority : Vous ou moi 
viendrons. 

Apres plusieurs infinitifs employes comme sujet, le verbe 
qui suit se met au pluriel : Boire . et dormir sont toute son 
occupation. 

Le verbe etre, quoique plac^ apres plusieurs infinitifs, se 
met au singulier, s'il est imm^diatement pr^c^d^ de ce : Lire, 
ecrire, c' est tout son plaisir. 

Cependant le verbe etre, quoique pr^c^d^ de ce, se met au 
pluriel lorsqu'il est suivi d'un nom pluriel : 

L'honneur parle, il suffit: ce sont Ik mes oracles. — Racine. 

Quand le verbe a pour sujet un collectif suivi d'un com- 
plement, le verbe s'accorde avec le collectif, s'il est ge- 
neral, 

Une troupe d'assassins antra dans la chambre de Coligny. — Voltaire. 

et avec le complement, si le collectif est partitif : Un nom- 
bre infini d'oiseaux faisaient retentir ces bocages de leurs 
chants. Le verbe, dans ce cas, s'accorde avec le mot qui 
attire davantage I'attention. 

Le verbe s'accorde toujours avec le complement, exprimd 



PLACE DU SUJET. 95 

ou sous-entendu, des collectifs essentiellement partitifs, la plu- 
part^ un grand nomdre : La phipart sont heureux. 

II en est de meme des adverbes de quantity : Assez de gens 
pratiquent la vertu. 

Plus d^un veut le verbe au singulier : Plus d^une Penelope 
honora son pays ; a moins qu'il n'^veille I'id^e de reciprocity : 
Plus d^unfripon se dupent Tun V autre. _ 

Lorsque le verbe a pour sujet le pronom relatif qui, il 
s'accorde avec rant^c^dent de ce relatif, en nombre et en 
personne : 

Cestmoi qui votes le dis, qui suis votre grand'' mire. — Moliere. 

Mais si Tant^c^dent du relatif a un attribut, le verbe s'accorde 
avec cet attribut : Vous etes le seicl qui le sache. 

Le verbe s'accorde toujours avec cet attribut, lorsque la 
proposition est negative : Je ne suis pas ici un historien qui 
doit vous devoiler les secrets des cabinets. 

Place du Sujet* 

Regle Generale. — Le sujet se met avant le verbe : Je suis 
jeune, il est vrai. 

Exceptions. — i. Dans les phrases interrogatives, il se met 
apres le verbe dans les temps simples, apres I'auxiliaire dans 
les temps composes: Avait-il? Est-ilvenu? Si le sujet est 
compose d'un nom, on ajoute un pronom de la meme per- 
sonne ; et alors le nom se met avant le verbe, et le pronom 
apres le verbe : Votre pere est-il de retour ? 

2. Le sujet se met apres le verbe dans les phrases exclamatives 
et dans les citations : Peut-il sefaire I Cest vous, lui dit-il, qui 
avez remporte le prix. 

3. Le sujet se met encore apres le verbe lorsque la phrase 
commence par aussiy au moins, du moins, a peitie, en vaiji, 
encore, etc. : Aussi vous dis-je la verite. 



96 DU VERBE. 

Complement du Verbe. 

II faut donner a chaque verbe le complement qui lui con- 
vient. 

Un verbe ne peut avoir qu'un complement direct : Le luxe 
corrompt tout ; et qu'un complement indirect pour exprimer le 
meme rapport. Boileau n'aurait pas du dire : 

C'est k vous, mon esprit, k qui je veux parler. 

Lorsqu'il y a dans la phrase deux ou plusieurs verbes qui ne 
veulent pas le meme regime, il faut donner a chacun celui qui 
lui convient. Dites : II attaqua la ville et s'en empara ; il 
attaqua et s' empara de la ville, ne serait pas correct. 

La meme chose a lieu lorsque les verbes ont des comple- 
ments indirects marques par des prepositions differentes. D'ou 
il suit que si les verbes dans la meme phrase gouvement le 
meme regime direct, ou un regime indirect marque par la 
meme proposition, on peut n'exp rimer I'objet qu'une fois : 
J'aime et j'estime ces enfants. 

Les verbes actifs ont toujours un regime direct ; ils 
peuvent avoir aussi un regime indirect : Donner quelque 
chose a quelqu'un. 

Le regime indirect des personnes est genOralement marquO 
par la preposition a, et celui des choses par la preposition de. 

Comme marque des regimes, les prepositions a, de, pour, etc., 
jouent le meme role que leurs correspondants en anglais. 

Place du Complement. 

Le regime du verbe se place apres le verbe, a moins que 
le regime ne soit un pronom personnel, et c'est la seule excep- 
tion. Alors il se place avant le verbe, comme nous I'avons 
deja vu. 



PARTICIPE PRESENT. 9/ 

Si le verbe a deux regimes, le regime direct se place le 
premier, si ces regimes sont de meme longueur : Les Americains 
vainquirent les Anglais a Yorktown. 

Le regime le plus court se met le premier. 

La priority des regimes est gouvern^e par cette regie g^- 
n^rale : 

II faut placer les regimes de maniere a ^viter toute Equi- 
voque ; il ne faut done pas dire : 

Tdchez de ramener ces esprits egares par la douceur, 
yenverrai les livres h mon voisin quHl a demandes. 

II faut changer la construction, et dire : 

Tdchez de ramener par la doucetir . . . 
yenverrai a mon voisin . . . 

Emploi des auxiliaires et des temps. (Voir ces deux ques- 
tions dans la Premiere Partie.) 

CHAPITRE VII. 

PARTICIPE PRESENT. 

Le participe present, invariable de sa nature, se distingue de 
I'adjectif verbal termini par anl des manieres suivantes : 

1. Le participe present exprime une action : Le temps est 
un vrai brouillon, mettant, remettant^ rangeant, derangeant, 
imprimant, effaganl, rapprochant, eloignant, et rendant toutes 
choses bonnes ou mauvaises. — Mme. de Sevigne, 

2. L'adjectif verbal exprime un Etat : 

La passion dominante de Cesar etait Vambiiion. 

3. Le participe present peut se remplacer par un temps du 
verbe : Ces hommes, prevoyant le danger, c'est-a-dire, qui 
prevoyaient, se mii^ent sur leurs gardes. 



98 PARTICIPE PASSE. 

4. L'adjectif peut se construire avec un temps du verbe etre : 
Les eleves prevoyants s' applique iit a Vetiide, c'est-a-dire, qui 
sont pj'hwyants. 

Le participe present peut avoir un complement direct : 

" Cette reflexion embarrassant notre homme, 
On ne dort point, dit-il, quand on a tant d'esprit." — La Fontaine. 

Suivi d'un complement indirect, le qualificatif ant est parti- 
cipe present, si Ton veut considerer r action : On voyait des 
debris flottant vers la cote. 

II est adjectif si Ton veut considerer I'^tat : Calypso aper^ut 
des cordages flottants sur la cote. 

Le qualificatif ant est participe present lorsqu'il est accom- 
pagne d'une negation : Des ecoliers ne travaillant pas. 

II est participe present lorsqu'il est precede de la propo- 
sition en exprimee ou sous-entendue : La mer mugissant res- 
semblait a une personne irritee. 

CHAPITRE VIII. 

PARTICIPE PASSE. 

Participe Pass6 sans Auxiliaire. 

Le participe passO, employ^ sans auxiliaire, est un veritable 
adjectif, et s'accorde en genre et en nombre avec le mot qu'il 
qualifie : Ce sont les recompenses dues au merite. 

Exceptions. — i. Except^, suppose^ passe, attendu, oui, restent 
invariables lorsqu'ils precedent les mots qu'ils qualifient : Ex- 
cepts mes amis ; suppose ces fails; passe cette heure. lis 
s'accorderaient s'ils etaient places apres les noms. 



AVEC AUXILIAIRE. 99 

2. Vu, approuve^ certifie, au commencement de phrases : Vu^ 
approuve^ et certijie la presente copie confer me a r original. 

Participe Passe avec Auxiliaire. 

Le participe pass6, conjugu^ avec I'auxiliaire etre, s'accorde 
avec le sujet du verbe : La vertu est souvent meprisee. 

Le participe pass6, conjugu^ avec avoir, s'accorde seulement 
avec son regime direct, lorsque celui-ci precede le participe: 
Les livres que nous avons lus. 

Mais il reste invariable si le regime direct le suit, ou s'il n'a 
pas de regime de cette nature, ou qu'il soit sans regime : J'ai 
regu voire lettre, Vous avez repondu a mon attente. Nous 
avons chante. 

Le sujet n'a aucune influence sur le participe pass^ conjugu^ 
avec avoir. 

Le participe pass^ des verbes neutres qui prennent avoir 
restent toujours invariables, puisqu'ils ne sauraient avoir de 
regime direct. 

Remarque. — Le regime direct, pr^c^dant le participe pass^, 
est toujours un pronom personnel, ou un substantif pr^c^d^ de 
quelque de, combien de. 

Le participe pass^ des verbes pronominaux suit la meme 
regie, parce que le verbe etre remplace simplement le verbe 
avoir: La lettre qu'ils se sont adressee. lis se sont blames. 

D'ou il suit que le participe pass^ des verbes essentiellement 
pronominaux s'accorde toujours, ^tant toujours pr^c^d^ de son 
regime direct ; except^ le verbe s'arroger, dont le pronom 
r^fl^chi n'est jamais le regime direct. 

Le participe pass^ des verbes pronominaux neutres reste 
toujours invariable, except^ les trois pronominaux neutres, se 
douter, se prevaloir, s'echapper, dont le participe pass6 s'accorde 
toujours avec le pronom refl^chi. 

L. \}\ U 



lOO . PARTICIPE PASSE. 

Remarques. — Le participe pass6 des verbes impersonnels 
est to uj ours invariable. 

Plac6 entre deux que, le participe pass^ reste invariable, 
ayant pour regime direct la proposition qui suit : Les embarras 
quefai su que vous aviez. Que vous aviez est le regime direct 
de su; et le premier que, regime de vous aviez. 

Le participe reste invariable lorsque il a le complement direct 
/'equivalent a cela : La famine arriva ainsi que Joseph Vavait 
predit. 

La meme remarque a lieu lorsque le, la, les, que, lequel, pre- 
cedent le participe par ellipse d'une proposition : // ne vous a 
pas dit toutes les heures qu'il a pleure. 

Le participe pass^ precede d'un pronom personnel et suivi 
d'un infinitif varie s'il a pour complement le pronom, et reste 
invariable si le pronom depend de I'infinitif qui suit : 

Cette femme chante Men, je Vai entendue chanter. J'ai 
entendu qui ? Elle, V est regime du participe. 

Cette romance est jolie,je Vai entendu chanter. J'ai entendu 
quoi? Chanter cette romance. Le pronom depend de 
I'infinitif. 

Lorsque I'infinitif peut se changer en participe present, le 
participe passe est precede de son regime direct, comme dans 
I'exemple : 

Cette femme chante Men, fe Vai eiitendue chanter, fai 
entendu elle chantant. 

Cette remarque s'applique au participe passe suivi d'un 
infinitif precede d'une preposition : Les personnes que fat 
desire voir sont ici. J'ai desire quoi? De voir les personnes — 
pas d'accord. // nous a pries de lui ecrire. LI a prie qui? 
Nous — accord. 

Le participe fait est la seule exception. Suivi d'un infinitif, 
il reste toujours invariable : LI a fait taire ceux qu'il avail fait 
parler. 



RECAPITULATION. lOI 

L'infinitif est parfois sous-entendu apres les participes des 
verbes pouvoir, vouloir^ devoir ; mais alors le participe reste 
invariable, ayant pour regime l'infinitif sous-entendu. 
Je lui ai re7idu tous les services que j'^ai pu — lui rgndre. 

Du et voulu varient cependant lorsqu'ils sont employes dans 
un sens actif: II m'a paye les sommes qiiHl m'a dues ; les choses 
que vous avez voulues. 

L'accord a toujours lieu lorsque le participe est prec^d^ de 
deux regimes directs : Les livres qu'il nous a pries de lui 
prefer. II a prie qui? Nous — accord. 

En frangais le peu, comme en anglais little, a deux significa- 
tions : le manque ou une petite quantite. Quand il signifie 
le manque, l'accord se fait avec le peu; c'est-a-dire que le 
participe reste invariable : Le peu d' affection que vous lui avez 
montre Va decourage. 

Lorsqu'il signifie une petite quantite, l'accord se fait avec le 
substantif qui suit le peu: Le peu d' affection que vous lui 
avez montree lui a rendu le courage. Le participe s'accorde 
avec son regime direct que. 

L'accord du participe n'a jamais lieu avec le pronom ind^fini 
en : Avez-vous ret;u des lettres? J'en ai regu. 

L'accord aurait lieu si en 6tait precede d'un autre pronom, 
regime direct du participe : Nous les en avons avertis. Nous 
avons averti qui? Les — accord. 



RECAPITULATION. 

Le participe passe, lorsqu'il est variable, est soumis aux 
memes regies d'accord que I'adjectif et le verbe : 

Precede de deux substantifs synonymes, il s'accorde avec le 
dernier : 

Un travail, une application soutenue. 



I02 DE L ADVERBE. 

Pr^c^d^ de deux substantifs unis par la conjonction ou^ il 
s'accorde avec le dernier : 

Son imprudence ou sa leghrete est blamee. 

Dans i^ne gradation, il s'accorde avec le dernier represent(§ 
par que, regime direct du verbe : 

Un discoursy une parole qu^on a prononcee datis la colere. 

Dans une Enumeration il s'accorde avec le mot qui renferme 
en lui tous les autres : 

Protection, chances heureuses, tout s^est teunl pour le favoriser. 

Pr^cEdE de deux substantifs unis par comme, de meme que, il 
s'accorde avec le premier (repr^sentE par que') ; 

La tete comme le cou est garnie de duvet. 

Precede d'un collectif general, il s'accorde avec ce coUectif 
repr^sente par que: 

Le grand nombre de f antes que fai remarque. 

Precede du collectif partitif, il s'accorde avec le regime du 
partitif, repr^sente par que : 

Un grand nombre des fautes que fai remarquees. — Noel et Chapsal. 

Regle Gen£;rale. — On reconnait que le participe passE 
est precede de son regime direct, lorsque ce regime r^pond a 
la question qui? pour les personnes, et quoi? pour les choses. 

CHAPITRE IX. 

DE L'ADVERBE. 

L'adverbe modifie d'une maniere complete le mot auquel il 
se rapporte. II ne demande aucun complement, a moins qu'il 
ne soit employ^ en opposition : Les ennemis sont dedans et 
dehors la ville. 



PLACE DE L ADVERBE, IO3 

Davantage modifie un verbe, mais sans id^e de comparai- 
son ; il ne doit pas s'employer pour le plus. 

Plus tot ^veille une id^e de temps, et est oppos^ a plus 
tard. 

Plutdt ^veille une id^e de pr^f^rence : Plutot souffrir que 
mourir, 

Siy aussi, se joignent aux adjectifs et aux verbes : aussi 
exprime la comparaison, si Textension; mais jamais il ne 
qualifie les locutions adverbiales. 

Tant, auta7it, se joignent aux substantifs et aux verbes : 
autant exprime la comparaison, tant I'extension. Dans les 
phrases negatives si, tant, remplacent aussi, auta?it. Les deux 
termes s'unissent par la conjonction que : II n'est pas si vail- 
lant que prudent ; rien ne m'a tant f ache que cette 7iouvelle. 

Tout-d-coup, tout d'un coup. Le premier signifie soudaine- 
ment, et le second, d'une seule fois : // se leva tout-d-coup une 
tempete. Ce mur est tombe tout d'un coup. 

Tres ne modifie qu'un adjectif ou un adverbe. Avant les 
noms on emploie Men : II est tres-savant, tres-instruit ; fat 
Men /aim. 

De suite, sans interruption : // ne saurait dire deux mots de 
suite. Tout de suite, aussitot, sur-le- champ : Les dons eleves 
obeissent tout de suite. 

Place de TAdverbe. 

L'adverbe suit imm^diatement le verbe qu'il modifie : // 
parte bien ; dans les temps composes, il se met apr^s I'auxi- 
liaire : Je lui en ai souvent parte. 

Les adverbes de temps se mettent g^n^ralement apr^s le 
participe : Nous avons ti'availle tard ; mais par emphase, ils 
peuvent se mettre avant le sujet de la proposition : Demain 
nous irons d la campagne. 



I04 DE l'adverbe. 

Les adverbes Men, 7?ial, ^ miejix, trop, et les adverbes de 
negation precedent g^n^ralement Tinfinitif. 

Person7ie suit rinfinitif et le participe pass6 ; rien les pre- 
cede : Sans voir per sonne, je n'ai vu personne ; sans rien voir, 
je n^ai rien vu. 

Les adverbes de quantity, modifiant un nom, se mettent 
apres le participe : II en a vendu beaucoup ; gen^ralement 
avant le participe, quand ils modifient le verbe : Elle a beau- 
coup danse ; elle a danse beaucoup serait incorrect. 

Ils representent les adverbes anglais many et much, 

Emploi de la Negation. 

La negation, en frangais, a trois degres : ne, ne pas, ne 
point ; ne pas et ne poiiit sont separes par les mots sur lesquels 
porte la negation: Je n'ose pas le dire ; je nHrai point m' ex- 
poser a des coups qui me feraient mal. 

Les locutions conjonctives a moins que, de peur que, de 
crainte que, et le verbe empecher, ainsi que autre, autre77ient, 
plus, moins, meilleur, les verbes craindre, avoir peur, tre77ibler, 
apprehe7ider, prennent la negation ne apres eux : J'ai peur 
qu'il ne perisse. 

Mais ces expressions s'emploient sans negation quand la 
proposition prec^dente est negative ou interrogative : 

// ne parte pas autrement quHl agit. 

Craignez-vous que mes yeux versent trop peu de larmes ? — Racine. 

Bizarrerie charmanie! L'Academie veut qu'on mette 7ie pas 
au lieu de ne apres craindre, apprehender, avoir peur, tre77ibler, 
de crainte que, de peur que, quand on desire Taction du second 
verbe : /e crains qu'il ne soil pas arrive signifie que je desire 
qu'il soil arrive. 

Lorsque les verbes nier, desesperer, disconve7iir, douter, sont 
n^gatifs, ils sont suivis de ne : Je 7ie doute pas que cela ne soil. 



DE LA PREPOSITION. IO5 

Dans les phrases interrogatives, point indique le doute : 

N'avez-vous point dit cela? Je doute. 
Et pas indique la certitude : 

N'avez-vous pas dit cela? Je suis certain. 

CHAPITRE X. 

DE LA PREPOSITION. 

Pi'es de suivi d'un infinitif signifie etre sur le point de. 

Fret a avant un infinitif signifie etre dispose a. 

Pres de ^veille une id^e de proximity : Je Vai vu pres du 
temple. 

Aiipres de a I'id^e de proximity ajoute I'idee d'assiduit^ : 
Cet enfant n^est heureux qic''aupres de sa mere. 

Vis-d-vis ne s'emploie que pour une opposition de lieu : // 
de77ieure vis-d-vis de Vhotel. II s'emploie aussi comme nom, et 
signifie compagnon, mais cette acception est rare : J'etais son 
vis-d-vis. II ne doit jamais s'employer pour envers : La recon- 
naissance envers ses parents, et non : vis-d-vis de ses parents. 

Au travers veut la proposition de : au travers d't/n biiisson. 

A travers veut un regime direct : a travers les cha7nps. 

Void se rapporte a ce qui suit : Void le code de Vegdiste : 
tout pour lui, rien pour les autres. 

Voild se rapporte a ce qui precede : Voild qui est bien dit. 

Entre indique deux objets, ou une idOe de reciprocity : 
enti'e nous. 

Parmi s'emploie lorsqu'il s'agit de plusieurs objets reprO- 
sentOs par un nom au pluriel ou par un collectif : parmi les 
hommes. Entre s'emploie quelquefois pour parmi: II a ete 
tj'ouve entre les morts ; mais pa^'mi ne prend jamais la place 
de entre. 



I06 DE LA CONJONCTION. 

Deux propositions peuvent avoir le meme regime : II a parte 
pour et contre vous. 

Deux locutions prepositives peuvent aussi avoir un seul 
regime, si elles exigent la meme preposition. On ne peut done 
pas dire : a cause et par rapport a vous ; a cause exige de. 

Une proposition et une locution prepositive ne peuvent pas 
avoir un seul et meme regime, II faut done tourner la phrase, 
et donner a chaque expression le regime qui lui convient. 

Les propositions a^ de, en, se rOpetent avant chaque com- 
plOment : On trouve les memes dispositions en Europe, en 
Afrique, en AmOrique. 

Les autres propositions ne se rOpOtent que lorsque les 
rOgimes n'ont aucune ressemblance de signification, ou lorsqu'on 
veut Otablir une espece d'opposition. 

Mais on ne rOpete aucune proposition devant deux substantifs 
dOsignant un seul et meme objet : Cette citation appartient a 
Romeo et Juliette, dOsignant cette piece. 



3^^C 



CHAPITRE XI. 

DE LA CONJONCTION. 

^/ sert a joindre : i. Deux propositions affirmatives: Tout 
me char me et m'interesse. 

2. Une proposition affirmative et une proposition nOgative : 
// se donne Men de la peine, et ne reussit pas. 

3. Deux propositions nOgatives : // ne fait rien, et il ne veut 
rien faire. 

Et peut etre rOpOtO avant chacun des sujets, des attributs, et 
des complements, ou peut n'etre exprimO qu'avant le dernier 
OnoncO : 



DE LA CONJONCTION. lO/ 

Et le riche et le pauvre, et le faible et le fort 

Vont tous egalement des douleurs h. la mort, 

Les plaintes, les regrets, et les pleurs sont perdus. 

£/ ne s'exprime pas : 

1. Lorsque les termes sont synonymes : C/ne grande dfne, 
un noble cceur. 

2. Lorsqu'il y a gradation : Les biens, la saMte, la vie, tout est 
d la patrie. 

3. Lorsque les propositions commencent par plus, mieux, 
moins, autant. 

Ni sert a joindre des propositions incidentes qui dependent 
d'une proposition principale negative : // ne cultive ni les 
sciences ni les letfres. 

Ni remplace pas, et unit les sujets, les attributs, et les com- 
plements : II ne craint ni vos reproches ni votre colere. 

Farce que signifie attendu que : 

Parce qu'elle meurt, faut-il que vous mouriez? — Racine. 

Par ce que signifie par la chose que ou par les choses que, 
Quoique signifie bien que. 
Quoi que signifie quelque chose que. 

La conjonction que se supprime rarement en frangais, et sert 
a unir : 

1. Deux verbes I'un a I'autre : Je crois que vous avez raison. 

2. Les deux termes d'une comparaison : // est plus studieux 
que vous. Que sert a ^viter la repetition de certaines conjonc- 
tions, quand, lorsque, si, quoique : Quand on est riche et qu'on 
est genereux. 

Si vous avez des amis, et que vous vouliez les conserver. 



io8 DE l'interjection. 

CHAPITRE XII. 

DE L'INTERJECTION. 

Ah ! exprime la joie, la douleur ; Ha / la surprise : 

Ah ! que je soufifre ! 
Ha! Ha! monsieur est Persan ! comment peut-on etre Persan? 

• — Mojiiesquieu. 

Oh / exprime la joie, I'affirmation : Oh ! pour le coup, je 
vous tiens. 

Ho ! sert a appeler : 

Ho ! descendez qu'on vous le dise. — La Fontaine. 

O sert a I'apostrophe oratoire : O monfils ! O mon roi! 

Eh / exprime la douleur : Eh ! qui n'a pleure quelque perte 
cruelle ? 

He s'emploie pour appeler, avertir : He ! venez done ; he / 
que dites-vous? 

CHAPITRE XIII. 

DES FIGURES DE SYNTAXE. 
Ellipse. 

L'ellipse est la suppression de quelques mots n^cessaires a 
la construction grammatical de la phrase, mais inutiles au 
sens, parceque I'esprit pent facilement les supplier. 

Notre inerite nous atti?-e Vestiine des gens de bien, et notre 
etoile celle du public. 

Le sens doit etre clairement indiqu^ afin que l'ellipse soit 
permise. 

Pl^onasme. 

Le pl^onasme est une surabondance de mots, qui ne sont 
pas absolument n^cessaires. Pour etre legitime, le pleonasme 



DES FIGURES DE SYNTAXE. IO9 

doit ajouter a la grace, a la clart^, a I'^nergie de la phrase : 
Puisse-je^ de vies yeux^y voir tomber lafoudre! 

Le pl^onasme de ces vers de Corneille semble etre vicieux : 

Trois sceptres k son trone attaches par mon bras, 
Parleront au lieu d'elle, et ne se tairont pas. 

Syllepse. 

La syllepse regie I'accord des mots, non d'apres les regies 
de la grammaire, mais bien selon le sens de la phrase : Une 
multitude de personnes sont venues ; venues s'accorde ici avec 
personnes; mais d'apres la grammaire, il devrait s'accorder 
avec multiticde. II peut y avoir trois especes de syllepses : 
syllepse de nombre, syllepse de personne, syllepse de genre. 

On donne encore le nom de syllepse a un nom employ^ a 
la fois au propre et au figur^. 

Inversion, 

L'inversion ou I'hyperbate est I'emploi, la construction des 
mots dans un ordre contraire a I'ordre analytique : 

Comment dans I'ame des devots, 
Tant de fiel peut-il entrer? 

L'inversion est beaucoup plus fr^quente en po6sie qu'en 
prose ; mais pour etre permise, elle doit ajouter a la phrase 
de la vivacity, de la force, et de la clart^ : 

. . . Vous leur fites, Seigneur, 
En les croquant, beaucoup d'honneur. — La Fontaine. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION, 



FIRST PART. 



Ill 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



FIRST PART. 
I. 

PRINCIPLES. 

The signs of the written language are not adequate repre- 
sentations of the sounds and articulations of the spoken 
language. 

Some of the nineteen characters used to form the twenty 
consonants or articulations have not always the same value. 
There are but six characters to represent the sixteen vowels. 
Hence arise — 

The necessity of using compound signs, as ch, gn for conso- 
nants, and an, in, on, un for vowels ; 

The necessity of using accessory and modifying signs as 
accents, cedilla ; 

The necessity of correcting by remarks, both general and 
particular, the imperfections of the preceding means. 

And such is the scope of this Manual. 

II. 
ORGANS OF SPEECH. 

The organs of speech are the lungs, the throat, the palate, 
the tongue, the teeth, the lips, and the nose. 

Letters formed by aid of these organs are called pectorals, 
gutturals, palatals, dentals^ labials, nasals. Palatals are also 
called Unguals. 

113 



114 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

The lungs send forth the sounding air; the other organs 
modify it. Hence every letter is, strictly speaking, pectoral ; 
but the letter h, either mute or aspirate, is the only one called 
a pectoral, and does not belong to any other class or category. 
When treating of the other letters the action of the lungs is 
always supposed. 

III. 

VOWELS. 

A spoken vowel is a modification of the sound of the voice, 
which may be prolonged without changing the position of the 
organs ; whereas articulation is the motion of the organs from 
one position to another. 

The guttural vowel is chiefly fornned by the throat, sounds 
in the bottom of the mouth completely opened, as a. 

The palatal vowel is chiefly formed by the palate, sounds in 
the middle of the mouth, the teeth being nearer, as e. 

The dental is chiefly formed by the teeth nearly closed, as /. 
Between a and ^ is ^ acute, less guttural than a. 
Between e and / is e acute, more dental than e. 
E, middle between e grave and e acute, has lately been 
introduced. 

Hence there are six vowels which are neither labial nor 
nasal, and which form the first class of vowels : a, a, e, e, e, i. 
Six other vowels may be called labials : 
o, eu, open, but less than a, e, 
d, e^, close. 
ou, u, very close. 
It is sufficient to draw the lips nearer to change 
a into o, 6, ou. 
e into eu, eu. 
i into ti. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. II5 

We shall have sixteen vowels if we add to these twelve the 
four nasals : a?i or en, in, on, un. 

Are these nasals pure vowels or simple sounds ? Yes, not- 
withstanding d 'Olivet's opinion. The nasal begins and ends 
with the modified sound of a, e, 0, u. When I say, Ce noni 
est beau, there is nothing between nom and est capable of 
destroying the hiatus, which is allowed even in poetry. 

The want of uniformity among grammarians concerning 
the number and the nature of the vowels demands some 
explanation. 

As it is impossible to detect any difference in the sound of 
eu open or acute and of e mute, they must be considered as 
but one vowel. jEune homi7te,j%p'Ktit, the eu and the e sound 
alike. 

The final e mute must be considered as very short, so as 
to avoid confounding it with the quasi-wowe\, added to final 
consonants, or to a consonant followed by another. The 
sounding of that ^2^^i"/-vowel is without quantity, and essen- 
tially instantaneous, as : gap, pic, trie, trac. The difference 
between the final e mute of pique and the quasi-YOWQl of pic is 
not perceptible when these words are isolated ; but the difference 
becomes very perceptible when they are connected with other 
words : \e pic de T^n^riffe (the peak of Teneriffe), la \>\que du 
soldat (a soldier's pike). The sound produced by e mute, very 
short, is the same as the sound of e mute short, as m petit, and 
of e mute long, as inje, ne. Therefore the sound of e mute is 
the same as the sound of eu open. 

Levizac distinguishes e mute from eu acute, also e in pere, 
which he calls open, from e in succes, which he calls very 
open, and places between them e, in ferme, which he calls 
more open. Thus he counts two vowels more than we do. 

Girault-Duvivier distinguishes also e mute from eu, either 
open or acute, but suppresses a, e, 6, eu, relying on Bouillette's 



Il6 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

authority, from whom he quotes the following : " Let the 
vowels be long or short, grave or acute, their nature remains 
the same " ; and, " In the French language short vowels are 
always acute, and grave ones always long." 

Here are three propositions worth considering : 

Let the vowels be long or shorty their 7iature remains the 
same. 

This is true, and has a twofold meaning. 

1st meaning. — The sound of a vowel and its quantity 
are two different things. The sound of a acute in malheur, 
though prolonged indefinitely, would never produce the grave 
sound of a inpdleur; and the quick sound oi pdleurwiil not 
change its nature. 

2d meaning. — The sound of a vowel does not depend upon 

its quantity. A long can be either grave or acute, z.'s.flamme, 

rame (oar), and so also a short, as rameaii (branch), en- 

flamme. The quantity would rather depend upon the sound. 

(See Quantity.) 

Let the vowels be either grave or acute^ their nature remains 
the same. 

The word nature is not exact, but it is evident that the 
author means to say that a grave and a acute are but one 
and the same vowel, etc. Nothing is less true ; for, in each 
class of vowels, their difference is precisely their degree of 
grave sound. In the first class, what is the difference between 
a and /? The degree of sound : a being the extreme grave 
sound, and / the extreme acute sound. Therefore the vari- 
ous degrees that the ear and usage can distinguish between 
these two extreme sounds may be considered as different 
vowels. 

The vowels of the second and third class are formed by 
those of the first class, and share in their respective grave 
sounds. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 11/ 

The lips more or less closed produce a second kind of grave 
sound, as : o, o^ eii, eu. 

The nasal is a third kind of grave sound. 

In the French language^ short vowels are always acute, and 
grave vowels always long. 

This is not exact; for in hasard, hasarder (venture), a is 
short, and yet not acute. The same must be said of o in 
devotion^ poser (to place), etc.; of e in cesser (cease), con- 
fesser, etc. ; of eu in eudoxe, eunuque. Therefore grave vowels 
are not always long. 

If the author means also to say that acute vowels are 
always short, he would be equally wrong; v.g. a is acute in 
brave, but not short. Besides, all the endings, either mascu- 
line or feminine, are more or less long, and yet they are very 
often acute, as : art, durable, cafe, etc. 

All short vowels are acute, is the maxim of those who give 
to a, in condaniner, gagner, etc., a sound next to the sound 
of e open, and give the same sound to the two a'% in agitation. 

All the long vowels are grave, is the doctrine of those who 
say table for table, affable for affable, etc. 

Grave and acute vowels must be distinguished indepen- 
dently of their quantity. This is a great difficulty for those 
who have not been trained from their infancy to make this 
distinction, but serious attention will overcome the obstacle. 

In the South of France the different sounds of a, e, and o 
tend to disappear. They take a certain medium, as in the 
Italian and Spanish languages, which have but five vowels. 

In the North of France people keep the distinction between 
the acute and the grave sounds ; but they often place them on 
the wrong vowel. They would say : notre pere, no peres, for 
n^tre pere, n^s peres. 

Note. — This is said for the benefit of the American tourist. 



Il8 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

WRITTEN ACCENTS. 

Sig'ns Modifyiiig^ the Sounds of Vowels. 

The introduction of modifying signs for vowels has taken 
place little by Httle. It may be reduced to five degrees, 
corresponding to five epochs of French literature, beginning 
with the sixteenth century, and ending with the eighteenth. 
We shall pass over these various degrees to consider the 
accents as they are used to-day. 

Synopsis. 

At present the sound of e is modified by three accents : 
acute^ grave, and circumflex. 

The sound of a, o, eu is modified only by the circumflex 
accent, which renders the vowels i, u, ou long, but does not 
change their sound. 

The compound vowels ai, eu, ou are the only compound 
vowels susceptible of accents. 

Every e not mute has one of the three accents, unless the 
following rule be applied : No vowel takes an accent when 
followed by a consonant, sounded or not, belonging to the 
same syllable, as : barx^, aicher. The following words are the 
only exceptions : 

chasse (reliquary), bat (pack-saddle), mat (mast). 

des (dice), pres (meadows), verites (truths), etc. 

des (since), pres (near), apres (after), tres (very). 

exces (excess), proces (process), progres (progress), etc. 

ci-git (here lies), il paratt (it seems). 

rot (roast), prevot (provost), depot (deposit). 

sfir (sure), mfir (ripe), flit (cask), afffit (hiding-place in game). 

gofit (taste), co(it (cost), modt (must-wort). 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. II9 

IV. 

CONSONANTS. 

A consonant is the sign of articulation. 

Articulation is the stroke (ictus) of the sounding air, follow- 
ing either a total or a partial compression. 

In articulating, the action of the organs is twofold : close, 
open. 

The total compression is the one affecting the whole mass of 
the air breathed forth ; and the partial compression is the one 
which, in its duration, permits the escape of a part of the air 
sent forth by the lungs. Both may be hard or soft. 

There is no compression of air in h mute, since that letter, 
like simple vowels, represents a soft emission of sound. 

The same must be said of h aspirate, which is but a hiatus. 
In Enghsh or in German, this h is more aspirate and has a 
guttural sound, as the friction of the air is felt in the throat, 
though open. 

The compression of the sounding air which produces 
gutturals is made by swelling the tongue, so as to close 
the orifice of the throat. The compression producing palatals 
and dentals is made by pressing the tongue against the roof 
of the mouth, more or less near the teeth, which are drawn 
nearer together. The compression producing labials is formed 
by closing the lips. These sounds are the same as in English ; 
some, like r, are stronger in French. 

Compression is the first element of articulation, and the 
second consists in opening suddenly the organ closed, or nearly 
so. 

Now, the difference between the mute consonants and semi- 
vowels or aspirates can be easily understood. To produce a 
mute consonant there is a total compression of the sounding 



120 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

air, and consequently there is no sound emitted until the 
organ, entirely closed, opens and permits the air to escape, 
which forms the vowel following, or quasi-vowtX, as in English 
C3X, /ouch, /ower, in which the air is totally compressed. 

Mute consonants are the two gutturals, c, g (both hard), the 
two dentals, t, d, and the two labials, p, b. 

Each articulation has its soft and hard sound. 

All other consonants, before the vowel is heard, have a 
breathing, hissing, or a buzzing sound, caused by the expulsion 
of the air from the lungs into the half-opened organ, or into 
another organ, — namely, the nose, — which can produce no 
other sound. 

In sounding the letter / the tongue goes to the roof of the 
mouth in such way as to allow the air to escape right and left ; 
then lowering itself, it takes the position necessary for the 
sounding of the vowel following, as /-a. 

To produce r, the sounding air bears on the tip of the 
tongue, which is made to vibrate against the roof of the mouth. 
The perfect articulation of this letter is stronger in French than 
in English. When the sounding air is made to bear on the 
middle of the tongue, the articulation is defective, and a per- 
son is then said to burr. 

To produce the palatal sibilants, ch, j\ the teeth are drawn 
near, and the tongue is raised towards the palate, so that the 
air is made to strike the tongue before passing between the 
teeth. The digraph ch sounds very much like the English sh. 

The production of s and z is simpler, the air striking against 
the upper gums, with the tongue resting against the lower 
teeth. 

A defective pronunciation, called lisping (blaiser), is pro- 
duced by putting the tongue on the lower teeth. 

The letters /and v are produced by applying the lower lip to 
the upper teeth. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 121 

To produce m, allow a part of the air to escape through the 
nose ; compress the rest in the mouth by closing the lips, gently 
opening them afterwards to complete the articulation. 

N has the same nasal sound as w, but the tip of the tongue 
is pressed nearer the upper teeth, as for d^ but softer. 

We find the same nasal sound in the digraph gn liquid 
{mouille). The tongue touches the palate, but not so near to 
the upper gums ; n becomes more or less guttural, and so does 
/ when added to it. This French digraph sounds somewhat 
like the letters ;// in the English word onion. 

To give a consonant a liquid sound (mouiller), the sound of 
/ is blended with it. 

This articulation is sometimes difficult for English persons, 
though it sounds very much Hke the double // in Wi//iam 
mi//ion, etc. Here is an easy way to form this sound : Place / 
between two /'s, and make but one sound out of the three. 
Take, for example, bataillon. Those who do not know how to 
produce liquid / will say bata-yon, and others, bata//^«. The 
correct sound is a blending of the two incorrect ones : 
bataylion. 

In many languages these semi-vowels would be called 
aspirate, which would explain the kind of sound — guttural, 
nasal, dental, or labial ; but in French that word would be too 
restricted in meaning, since in French, to aspirate is to pro- 
nounce more or less from the throat. 

V. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

It is a gross error to confound diphthongs with compound 
vowels. Compound vowels exist only for the eyes : eu, au, ou, 
are to the ear as simple as a, e, i ; but the diphthong produces 
two distinct sounds. 



122 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION, 

The first vowel of a diphthong is called prepositive, and the 
second subjunctive. The prepositive fulfils the office of a con- 
sonant in the syllable. In the word oui, i is the syllabic vowel, 
and ou is the consonant, so to speak. If oii were here a vowel, 
and used as such, there would be two syllables, but no 
diphthong. 

We shall call consonant-vowels those which can be used as 
prepositives in diphthongs — namely, i, o, ou, u, 

1 — i — 1/ard, b/en, p/on, dental diphthongs. 

2 — o — m^i, m^ins, 

3 — ou — oui, Saint Outn, \. labial diphthongs. 

4 — u — \u\, pz/its, ixuits. 

Note. — The prepositive is more closed than the subjunctive; thus the 
diphthong contains the two essential elements of articulation. In the 
word bien, the teeth are closed to sound i, and opened to sound en. In 
the word lui, the lips close to sound u, and open to sound i. 



VI. 

SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is a vowel, either alone or joined to some other 
letters, uttered by a single impulse of the voice. 

A syllable is very si7nple when there is no articulation, as : a, 
y, aux, etc., and simple when there is but one articulation, as : 
le, les, monts. 

A double syllable is that which is sounded before a syllabic 
vowel, two consonants, or a consonant and a syllabic vowel, as : 
grand, plat, vieux. 

There are some triple syllables, as : j-Zratageme, j-/rophe, etc. 

A redundant or a double redundant syllable is one in which 
there are sounded one or two consonants after the syllabic 
vowel, as : be^, s\i\ct. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 1 23 

In a double, triple, or redundant syllable the consonants are 
barely heard, except the one immediately preceding the syl- 
labic vowel. 



VII. 

PROSODY, ACCENT, QUANTITY. 

Prosody, Accent, and Quantity are still unsettled. The prin- 
cipal authorities are Frosodie Frangaise, by d'Olivet ; Fwo 
Letters of I'Abb^ Batteux on accent ; and a Familiar Essay by 
Durand on French prosody. These three works have been 
published and annotated by Mangard. 

We shall take as the foundation of our remarks the following 
definitions of the Academy : 

Pi'osody. — Correct pronunciation of words according to accent and quan- 
tity. 
Accent. — 1st Definition — The raising or the lowering of the voice on 
certain syllables. 
2d Definition — Change of the voice, affecting the duration and 

the tone of both syllables and words. 
The raising of the voice on one of the syllables of the word 

is called tonic accent. 
Accent is said absolutely of the tonic accent. 
The accent of grammar or of prosody {obligatory') is the one 
fixed by grammar or by prosody ; and the oratorical or 
pathetic accent {essentially free) is the one used by the orator 
to express or excite various passions or affections of the soul. 
Quantity. — Measure of long and short syllables. 

Quantity produces rhythm. 
Rhythm. — Number, cadence, measure. 

Prose, as well as poetry, has rhythm. 

Is there in French a prosodial accent? Is there in each 
French word a principal syllable, which one is not free to 
choose, upon which the stress must fall, and to which all 
the other syllables of the word are subordinate ? 



124 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION, 

This accent must exist in the French language as well as 
in any other; for accent is necessary to the distinction of 
words and of ideas. 

Is this accent tonic ? 

Absolutely speaking, no ; but nevertheless it is prosodial. 

According to M. d'Olivet, says Mangard, i.e. according to 
his definition of the accent, which is the definition {the first) 
of the Academy, " we have no prosodial accent, because we 
neither raise nor lower the voice on any syllable in a noticeable 
manner ; but, in reality, there is in every word a syllable, long 
or short (more or less long), which we mark by a stronger 
stress of the voice, and that stress of the voice is a pure 
prosodial accent." 

Mangard agrees here with Durand, who explains everything 
in this matter by these two words : ictus (stroke) and rest 
(coup — appui) . The words just quoted explain my assertion : 
rigorously speaking, we have 7io tonic accent. 

What kind of accent is it, then ? 

In my opinion, it is purely rhythmical. Quantity produces 
rhythm, says the Academy ; it produces, then, rhythm ; first in 
words, and afterwards, in sentences. In the rhythm or cadence 
of a word the accented syllable essentially plays the principal 
part. Rhythm with the inflexions of the voice produces ora- 
torical accent, simple or solemn. Batteux says the same 
thing, but in different words. In French, the voice is raised 
only preparatory to a pause ; and so the accent is truly tonic 
only at the end of sentences, or members of sentences. 

Place of the Tonic or Quasi-Tonic Accent. 

A characteristic of accentuation in any language is the 
admission of a number of unaccented syllables (syllabes de 
rabaissement) after the accented syllable. In French, the 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 1 25 

accent is always on the final syllable, except in words ending 
in e mute, and then the accent is on the penult. 

In English, Italian, Latin, and Greek, there are not only 
one, two, or three beats after the accent, but there are one, 
two, or three syllables, so : 

Banquet becomes in English banquet. 
Instrument " " " instrument. 
Medicament " " " medicament. 
Monastere " " " monastery. 

Batteux bewails the fact that there exists this difference 
between our principles of accentuation and those of other 
languages, but I think he is wrong ; for to end with graceful- 
ness after the accent, and to approach the accent with grace- 
fulness, are two systems which have their advantages. 

Be this as it may, the comparison of French words of either 
masculine or feminine endings with the Latin words from which 
they are derived, evidently shows that the principle just men- 
tioned has presided over the formation and the perfection of 
our language. 

In French, the accent is either on the same syllable as it is 
in Latin, or it is not ; but both cases afford evident proofs of 
our proposition. 

When the accent is, in French, on the same syllable as in 
Latin, the unaccented syllables are either — 



Suppressed, as: 
amare, aimer, 

finire, finir. 

veritatis, verite. 



Or reduced to e mute, as : 
legere, lire, 

amabilis, aimable. 
certitudo, certitude. 



If the accent changes its place, it never moves backward, 

i.e. towards the beginning of the word, but, on the contrary, 

moves forward — 

Or approaches the final e mute, as : 
iitilis, utile, 

rapidus, rapide. 
originis, origine. 



Either to the last syllable, as ; 
mentum, menton. 
piscis, poissSn. 

aether, ether. 



126 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

It is, then, contrary to French accent to prolong the short 
penults, as calice, or even to extra-prolong the long ones, as 
arrY^ter. 

Certain penults have the necessary conditions for long syl- 
lables, and yet are not long, which proves the tendency of 
bringing out the endings of words by shortening the preceding 
syllable. 

Many words, mostly monosyllables, lose their accent when 
they are considered as one with the following word. Such are 
articles, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, and 
even adjectives, as : les hommes, ce jour, par la, /r^^-bien, etc. 

QUANTITY. 
Different Degrees in L.ong and Short Syllables. 

There are some short syllables, less short than others ; and 
some long ones, more or less long. This is not a mere 
remark ; it is a principle ; for the old method of dividing all 
the syllables of a language into long and short syllables of 
equal value has given place to a more varied and more free 
rhythm. 

These various degrees may be found either in the body or 
at the end of words. 

Syllables More or Liess Short in the Body of Words. 

This difference may be either naticral or accidental. 
The short vowels more so by nature are : 

a, o, e, eu (e) with the acute sound, 
i, u, ou, do not alter their sound. 

The short vowels less so by nature are : 

a, o, e, eu, sounded as a, 6, e, ^u. 

an, in, on, un, do not alter their sound. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



127 



In the succession of several syllables naturally of equal 
quantity the last is shortened and the preceding one is pro- 
longed, but by accident. 





Natural qtiantity. 


Modified quantity. 




'a, 


assez. 


frac(3;sser, fricasser. 


IS 


0, 


h^mmage. 


bonhcmie. 


15 


e, 


Apices, 


Len/ffice. 


^ \ 


e, eu, 


kver, \^eia&\xyi. 


rel<?ver, dem^wrer. 




i, 


tzrer. 


milzter. 




.X3 


u, 


wser. 


salwtaire. 


C/2 


ou, 


coz^ler. 


dec<7«ler. 




Natural quantity. 


Modified quantity. 


tn 


a, 


passer. 


comp<2Sser. 




0, 


p^ser. 


imposer. 


e, e, ai 


, kzsser. 


conf-?sser. 




eu, 


TcuX.on. , 




an, en, 


t<??zter. 


int<?«ter. 


-s 


in, 


smger. 


contmgent. 


ID 


on. 


ff;zdu, 


^.' confowdu. 


h-l 


un. 


D««kerque (city). 





The cadence seems more noticeable in syllables shorter by 
nature, as : frac<a;sser ; and still more so if the last short syllable 
is shorter by nature, and the preceding one, less short, as : il 
pass^ra, il posera, emp^reur, etc. 

These words may be regarded as dactyls. The first syllable 
is generally called long. 

The rhythm is perceptibly different when shorter syllables 
are mingled in an inverse order with less short ones, as : 
r<fposa, ^m^sser, ^m<??/ter, etc. 

Long Syllables by Position or by Apposition. 

The apposition of a consonant accompanied by a quasi- 
vowel may render a syllable long without prolonging the 
syllabic vowel, as martyr, ^^prit, h/jrtoire, <?;'guei], ?/^tensile. In 



128 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

that case the vowel may be considered as short, and yet the 
syllable is longer, or semi-long. 

liOng- Syllables in the Body of Words. 

A syllable is long when the duration of the vowel is in- 
creased. Long syllables are : syllables marked with a circum- 
flex accent : gdter, /iter, etc. ; the compound vowel, au, as 
aucun, auner (measure), aumusse, etc. (except when it has 
the acute accent). But what is to be said of the antepenult of 
those nouns ending in ation, assion, as : tentation, compassion ? 

The a is grave, and it is a great mistake to give to it the 
acute sound. It is the first syllable of the kind of dactyl 
mentioned above ; therefore it may be called long. 

liOng Syllables at the End of Words. 

Every masculine or feminine ending is more or less grave. 
The final accent — tonic or not — always adds to the duration 
of the accented vowel. 

The vowels which are the shortest when they are short, are, 
by a natural consequence, less long when they become long. 

The doubling of letters in masculine or feminine endings 
does not produce any substantial change of quantity, as : 



c 
o 





Masculine Endings, 


Feminine Endings 


a, 


chat, bac, 


chatte, arbre. 


o, 


roc. 


botte, ocre, ordre. 


e, 


cafe, 


college. 


e, 


eu, je, ne, bceuf, 


jeune, oeuvre. 


i, 


lundi, pic, 


bise, risque. 


u, 


rebut. 


butte, buste. 


. ou, 


joujou, boue, 


route, outre. 



These endings, called short by d'Olivet, are so only relatively 
to the following : 



biO 

C 

o 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. I 

Masculine Endings. Feminine Endings. 

a, bas, basse, impasse, 

o, turbot, beau, role, bote. 

8, e, ai, proces, marais, premiere, tempete, terre. 

eu, jeu, deux, jefine. 

an, puissant, puissante. 

in, saint, sainte. 

on, bon, renom, nonce, triomphe. 

un, defunt, defunte. 



E, of medium quantity and tone, holds the middle place 
between close and open e^ whether it approaches close e as in 
mai, bee, Greee, or open e as in ver, vert, pere, etc. 



VIII. 

EUPHONIC CONNECTIVES. 

It is stated in the Second Part what letters at the end of 
words are connective. Let it be remarked here that : 

In conversation many connectives are omitted to avoid 
affectation. 

Proper nouns are not connective — CharV est studieux, iox 
Charles est studieux. 

The two following lists are to be studied with care, especially 
the hst of vowels. 

The assistance of a teacher will always be useful — often 
necessary — to give the correct sound of each vowel. 

The sound of vowels and nasals in the English words in 
parenthesis is almost equivalent to the sound of vowels and 
nasals in the preceding French words. 



I30 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



1. a, acute, 

2. a, grave, 

3. e, mute, eu open, 

4. ^, acute, 

5. ^, medium, 

6. <^, grave, 

8. ^, open, 

9. Of close, 

10. <??/, 

11. «, 

12. ^z<t, close, 

13. d;;?, 

14. /";?, 

15. ^;?, 

16. Ufly 



Ijist of Vowels 

ch^t, ch^tte, 
bas, p^te, 
k, hd-ure, 
th<?', yai'mai, 
Gr^'co, b^lle, 
gr^s, b<?ler, 

b^tte, P^^/l, 

h<?te, heau, 

doux, 

du, une, 

deux, ]euneT, 

hlanc, hamTpe, 

vin, pain, Men, reins, 

bon, punch, 

un, ^Bxfum, 



(h«t). 
(father), 
(bz/d). 
(a/m) . 
(gr^ce, he\\). 
{gray, hnr). 
(m/11). 
(n^t, n^r). 
(h^pe, n^). 
{do, m^ve). 
{iQud, very imperfect), 
(for). 
{wani) . 
{vang). 
{wrong) . 
{uncle). 



By e open, ^ close, is meant the opening or the closing of 
the teeth ; and by eu, 0, open, eu, 0, close, the opening or the 
closing of the lips. 

liist of Consonants. 

1. k, mute, homme, 

2. h, aspirate, h^ros, 

3. k, hard, car, quart, kyrielle, 

4. g, hard, gout, 

5. /, loi, 

6. r, roi, 

7. e/i, chant, 

8. y, jeu, agile, 

9. ^, sou, cela, action, 
10. z, zebre, asile. 



[• pectoral. 

[■ guttural mutes. 

[■ palatals. 

[• palatal sibilants. 

r dental sibilants. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



131 



II. /, 


tout, 


12. d, 


doux, 


13./, 


fort, phare, 


14. V, 


vous, 


15- A 


pas, 


16. b, 


bon, 


17. m, 


moi, 


18. ;?, 


nous, 


19. ^;2, 


ognon. 


20. //, //, 


travail, aiguille 



dental mutes, 
labial sibilants, 
labial mutes, 
nasals, 
liquids. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



SECOND PART. 



133 



NOTICE. 

1. This Second Part does not absolutely presuppose the 
study of the first. It is complete in itself, and more appropri- 
ate to the student's capacity. 

2. Pronunciation is indicated by figures corresponding to the 
figures in the lists of vowels and consonants. 

3. It has been thought proper to distinguish the words in 
which a double consonant may be sounded without a grave 
error from those in which the consonant should not be sounded. 
There is a difference between sounding double m in com7node 
(a kind of barbarism) and sounding it in commemoration, coin- 
motion. The orator will usually prefer the most accented pro- 
nunciation. Noel and Chapsal point out this pronunciation 
only when it is prescribed. 

4. We Q.?^ final letters the last syllabic vowel of a word, and 
all the letters following it. Thus, in gros there are two final 
letters, os ; in grosse there is but one, the e mute ; in attaquent 
there are three, ent ; and in attaquaient there are five, aient. 

5. By feminiiie endings is meant not only final e mute 
and all the letters following it, but whatever forms a feminine 
rhyme in poetry ; hence, in grosse, the ending is osse, and in 
attaquent the ending is aquent. 



134 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



SECOND PART. 

APPLICATION OF GIVEN PRINCIPLES. 
A. 

A (the first' vowel) is ordinafily acute, and 
may be so before every consonant, as : able^ action^ 
adorer^ affreux, agres, article, etc. 

A grave accent does not render a grave, as : la, 
a droite. 

A (second vowel) is grave when marked with a 
circumflex accent, as : ame, baler, bacler (to 
fasten, to hurry up). 

A is grave when followed by s not sounded, as : 
am^s, r<2S. 

A before s, the sign of the plural, is less acute 
than in the singular, as : combat, pi. combdits. 

The ending as is grave when s is sounded, as : 
Ag€s\\as. 

A is grave in the words ending in az, aze, ase, 
as : gaz (fluid), gaze (tissue), base. 

A is grave in words ending in ation, assion, 
aille, as : nation, passion, bataille, Versailles, and 

135 



136 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

also in verbs in ailler, as: railler (to criticise), 
rimailler (to rhyme), except travailler, from tra- 
vaily detailler from detail. 

A is grave in the following words : 

Diable, oracle, damner, mardi, barre, parrain, 

Fable, racier, condamner, rare, carre, marraine. 

Sable, cadre, manne, barbare, carrosse, casser, 

Espace, gagner, Jeanne (Jane), haro, larron, grabat, 

Miracle, haillon (rag), Jacques (James), carotte, marron, esclave. 

When a is grave in a word, it is also grave in its derivatives, 
as : bassesse (mean) from bas, am^sser from am^s, etc. 
Except the following, in which a is acute : 

from bras^ br^sseur, from esclave, escWage. 

" emb^rras, emb^rraser; *' barbare, barbaric. 

" fr<2cas, frac^sser; " bat^ille, bat^illon. 

" traces, trac^sser ; " grabat, grab^taire. 
" inf<a;me, inf<3;mie. 

Compound Vowels. 

Ai is usually sounded as ^ grave, as : iaix^. 
Hence it is open in ialaise (cliff), laquais, salaire^ 
and medium in aider, aimer, plaisir, etc. 

Ai final is almost close in Mai (month) ; more open in essai, 
delai. 

Ai is equivalent to e close in the future and 
past definite tenses of verbs, as : je coup^/, je 
couperai, as also in ]ai, geai (jay-bird), and quai. 

Ai sounds like e mute in the verb fai^-e and its derivatives, 
when ai is followed by s not final, as : f.a!/sons, bienfcz/sant. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. I37 

At sounds like a in douairiere (dowager), Montaigne (proper 
noun). 

Ay final in Douay, Epernay, is sometimes sounded as at in 
Mai. 

Ay not final is equivalent to ai-i. The second 
i is a quasi-consomxii when followed by a vowel ; 
otherwise it makes a distinct syllable : pays, payer, 
paysan {pe-is, pe-ier^ pe-i-saii). 

Y should not have the value of three /'s : pai-'i-san, and not 
pdi-yi-san ; obe-ir, and not ohe-yir, 

A followed by y keeps its proper sound in And^ye, B<3;yeux, 
B^yonne, Bisc^ye, M^yenne. 

Ao is equivalent to grave in Epaone, Saone (proper 
nouns) . 

Au is sounded as o grave ; the circumflex 
accent being always understood, as: au^ aussz\ 
haut, Paule, Fran9ois de Paule, 

Au is sounded as o acute : 

In cauchemar (nightmare), mativais, Paul, Vincent de Paul. 
When followed by r, atireole, atiioie, yauisii. But vaurien 
follows the rule. 

Usage allows the following exceptions : 

^/^gmenter, AugM-sX^, ^z/gustin, auloriX.^, holoc^z/ste. 

Eau is always sounded as o grave : eau, beau, 
veau, 

Aeu, Aim, Ain, Aon. (See M, N, signs of 
Nasals.) 



138 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Aou, 

Aout (month) is pronounced out (Academy). 

As long as unsounded letters are not eliminated from ,a 
word, usage may allow their pronunciation, but this is not yet 
the case with Aout, which has but one syllable. 

There are three syllables in aouter, aoute (to reap). 



CONSONANTS. 
B. 

B (sixteenth consonant) is the soft sound of /, 
as: bon, bombe. 

A double bb has the value of one b, as : 2.bb€ 
(abe), ra^<5in, etc., but it may be sounded in abba- 
tial, xabbinique. 

B final is sounded only in Joab^ Job, and a few 
other foreign nouns, and also in rhumb, radoub, 
and a few technical words. 

B final is never connected with the vowel be- 
ginning the following word, as : changer le plomb 
en or, 

C. 

C (third consonant) has the sound of k before 
a, o, u, and before a consonant, as : calcul, col- 
lieres, clair, 

C (ninth consonant) is soft before e, i: Cenle, 
acndent, and when marked with a cedilla, as: 
iago7i. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 1 39 

C takes the sound of g (fourth consonant) in second 
(segond) and its derivatives, as seconder (segonder). Some 
give this sound to c in secret; but usage does not allow it in 
secretaire and its derivatives. C has the sound of^in : reine- 
claude (prune) and claude, meaning an idiot. 

Some would give to c the sound of the Italian ch in vermi- 
celtcy and even in violoncello ; but the Academy has decided 
neither for the one nor the other. 

Double cc has the simple sound of c, as : ac- 
c order ; except acclamation, accolade, in which it 
may be pronounced double. 

Final c is usually pronounced, as : bee, pic, 
strict (see / final). 

Final c is sounded in pore, but not in pore frais, nor in pore 
sale. 

C is always sounded in done, and may be silent only in very 
familiar conversation, provided that : 

It does not begin a sentence or a member of a sentence : Je 
pense, done je suis ; 

It is not connected with the following word : Tu veux done 
aussi me quitter. But a mother would say to her son : Tu 
veux done (don) partir, which is a Hcense and not a rule. 

C final is not sounded in almanack, cotignac, estomac, 
tabac, marc, etre dans les Xacs, (to be in a difficulty) , clerc, 
amict, eric, accroc (rent), broc (jug), croc (hook), escroc 
{\ki\^{), J071C (reed). C final is a connective in these three 
words : tabac etranger (taba k^tranger), abnanach etiropeen, 
estomac affaibli. C is slightly sounded in : croc en jambe (to 
trip up one's heels) ; compter de clerc en maitre (to give in 
one's accounts). 



I40 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Ch. 

Ch (usually the seventh consonant) is the 
hard sound ofy, as: chien, chat, chaud, 

Ch, followed by a consonant, has the sound of 
k: Chretien, chlo7^e, 

Ch has the sound of k : 

1. In all Hebrew words, as : Achab, Cham, Chanahan, 
Michol. 

Except : Achitopel, Ezechias, Ez^chiel, Malachie, Mich^e, 
Sichem. 

2. In Greek words, or derivatives from Greek, as : orchestre ; 
except those derived from d/ox^> ^s : Archeveque, archipretre ; 
but Archonfe, Archange, Archiepiscopal, follow the general 
rule. 

3. In Italian words, as Cherubini, Chiaramonti, Chieri, 
Michel- Afige ; but Machiavel, Machiavelisme , follow the gen- 
eral rule. 

Note. — Ch is represented by the sound of sh in English words, as : 
Shakespeare ; and by sc in Italian words, as : Scirocco (a hot wind from 
Africa) . 



D (twelfth consonant) is the soft sound of /, as : 
dire, donner. 

In the beginning and middle of a word d has 
always its proper value : de, soldat. 

When double, it is sounded double, as : addi- 
tion. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. I4I 

Final d is not sounded, as : chaud, froid ; 
except sud^ Madrid^ David^ and some foreign 
nouns. 

When connective, d takes the sound of t : grand 
homme ( grand /^omme ) ; but in Nord-Est, d 
keeps its value. 

D is connective in : pied-a-terre (temporary resting-place), 
de pied en cape (from head to ioot)jdefond en comble (entirely), 
but not in pied a pied. It is never sounded in gond, nid, muid 
(measure). In many other cases, which the ear must decide, 
d is not connective. The slightest rest is sufficient to prevent 
the connection of d, as : le froid, aujourd'hui, n'est pas grand 
aupres de celui d'hier. 

E. 

E, with the acute accent, has the sound of 
close e ( fourth vowel ) : cafe. 

There seems, however, to be an e less close than others. 

E. 

E, with the circumflex accent, is always e open 
(sixth vowel) : meTne, 

The circumflex accent of p7-eter, and especially of arreter, 
adds but very Httle to the duration of the syllable. 

E. 

E, with the grave accent, has ordinarily a 
medium sound (fifth vowel sound of ^ in neck) : 
hypotheque, troisieme^ espece. 



142 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

E, with the grave accent, is more open when it 
has the final accent, and when it is followed : 

By r sounded, as : pere, mere. 

By soft s, these J hypothese. 

It is very open when followed by s silent : proc<?s. 

It is also open in scene (theatre) and obscene. 

E. 

E (third vowel), without an accent, is silent : 

When final, as : je garde le poste. It is considered final 
when followed by j-, the sign of the plural, or the ending of the 
second person singular of verbs : /// penses ; or when followed 
by ;//, the ending of the third person plural in verbs : Us 
pensent. 

In the third person plural of the. imperfect indicative and 
the present conditional e is silent, as : ils couperaient, ils pen- 
saient, (pensai, couperai). But in the third person plural of 
the present indicative, and of the present subjunctive, e is 
not entirely silent, as : ils croieni. The ending is feminine, 
says Richelet. 

E, without an accent, is silent in the body of 
words, when followed by a consonant: tu referas 
cet ouvrage. 

The acute accent is understood in the endings 
er, ez, as : etranger, coupez. Except eez^ which is 
sounded open in Seez (Se, city). 

Note. — In words ending in er, e becomes medium, when the r is 
connective, as : aimer a ru'e ; singidier aitachement (aimerarire, singuhe 
rattachement). 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. I43 

E is close in the conjunction ei. 

The grave accent is understood : 

In the plural of the articles ks, des ; of the pronoms mes, 
teSj ses, ces ; in iu es ; il est. 

In all endings in et, as : proj'ef, sujet, objet (proje, etc.). 

E, without an accent, is generally medium 
when followed by two consonants belonging to 
distinct syllables, or when followed by a double 
consonant, or by the letters x, gn, /, liquid, or by 
a final sounded consonant, as: belle, bee, mettre, 
pareil. It is more open when followed by r, as : 
herbage, erreur. It has about the same sound in 
cesser, presser, confesser, professer, profession, 
messieurs. 

Exceptions. — E is mute in dessus, dessous, sens dessus 
dessous (upside down). 

In the compounds of the iterative re, when followed either 
by a double ss, as : resscntir, resserrer ; or by two consonants, 
the second of which is a liquid, as : reprendre, replier. 

E, without an accent, is equivalent to eu acute in orgueil, 
enorgueillir, and also to ce in mil, csillade, ceillet, ceillere. It 
is open in le7nf?ie, dilemme. 

E, without an accent, is sounded as a in femtne, hennir, 
solennel, indemniser, indei?inite, nenni (not all), ardemment, 
and in all adverbs of that form. 

E, without an accent, placed between g and the letters a, o, 
or u gives to g the soft sound of /, as : il Vengeola, et 
Vengagea a f aire une gageui'e (he deceived him and induced 
him to make a bet). 



144 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Compound Vowels. 

Ei is sounded as e with the acute accent in 
neige (snow) (ne-ge). 

Ei is sounded as ai or <f with the grave accent m peine ; 
it is e medium. 

£i is equivalent to e in reine, Seine, pronounced as renes 
(guide), cene (Last Supper). 

Ey final is equivalent to ei, or to e with the acute accent : 
le Dey (T Alger. 

Ey (Greek) or ei with a diaeresis in the body of words does 
not form a compound vowel : y or / is then the prepositive of 
a diphthong. (See I, Consonant.) 



Eu. 

Eu (twelfth vowel) is grave when marked with 
the circumflex accent: jeune^jeuner. 

Eu initial is grave : Eudore, Eugmie, etc. 

The endings eu^ eux, euse, eute, are always 
grave : jeu^ cheveux^ religieuse, emeute ; eu is also 
grave in meunier, 

Eu (third vowel) is acute when it is followed : 

By r, as : peur^ heure, sceur, beurre ; 

By f ox V sounded, as : veuf^ veuve, fabreuve, 
couleuvre ; 

By / either simple or liquid, or by / preceded 
by another consonant, with which it unites as a 
liquid: seul, meule, feuille, peuple, etc. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. I45 

Eu is acute in all the derivatives of words to which the 
preceding rules are applied : heureux, peiii-eux (first syllable). 
Eu has the sound of u in some forms of avoir, as : feus 

(j'u). 

Eim, Em, Ein, Efi. (See M, N, signs of Nasals.) 

Eau. (See Au.) 

/^(thirteenth consonant) is the hard sound of 
v^ as : fort, forge. 

Double ff is pronounced as single f: affaiblir, 
office; but it may be pronounced as double^ in 
affinite, affeterie (affectation), affilier, 

F final is sounded, as : bceuf, nerf, serf, oeuf. 

Except clef, cerf volant (horn-beetle, kite), nerfs, 
nerf de bceuf bceuf gras, bceufs, ceufs. 

Note, — Grammarians do not agree in the pronunciation of cerf: 
some soundy^ and others do not. — Noel and Chapsal. 

In the numeral adjective neuf,f\s not sounded if immedi- 
ately followed by a noun beginning with a consonant, as : neuf 
personnes ; but if the noun begins with a vowel, then / is 
connective and takes the sound of v : neuf hommes (neu 
vhommes) . 

Except in the latter case, final _/ silent is never 
connective, as : clef argentee ; and when pro- 
nounced it keeps its value, as: juif errant (jui 
f err ant). 



146 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

G. 

G (fourth consonant) has the hard sound before 
a, o, u, and all the consonants, except n (see Gn), 
as : gateau^ cigue (hemlock). 

G has the soft sound (/) before e and i, geler^ 
gibier, 

u, or k inserted between g and the vowels e^ i^ 
gives to g the hard sound, as: guerir guider, 
Enghien (proper noun). 

E placed between g and ^, o, u, gives to g the 
soft sound, as : il engagea une gageure. 

Note. — In Italian, i is used instead of e, adagio. In English,/ is used 
instead of ^, as \x\jail. 

G has the sound of k in gangrene (kangrene) and its 
derivatives. 

Double gg is sounded as single g^ as : agglome- 
ration, but it may be pronounced double. 

Final g is pronounced in Jong, bourg-mestre, and in foreign 
nouns, Agag, etc. It has the sound of k in Bourg (city) . But 
outside of Paris they say Bour, and even in Paris : Bour 
VAhbe, Bour la Reine. 

Final g is not sounded in : hareng, long, sang, rang. 

Final g, not sounded, is connective, and takes 
the sound of k (third consonant), as: sang humain 
(san khumain) ; but in many instances g is not 
connective. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



147 



Gn is the nineteenth consonant, as : ognon, 
(It sounds like the Spanish n, or like the letters 
ni in the English words onion^ union) 

Gn are two consonants in the beginning of the 
words gnome, gnide (kind of religion) ; and also in 
agnat (agnate-law), and its derivatives, as : diag- 
nostic, stagnant, stagnation, regnicole, inexpug- 
nable, igne, Progne (proper noun). But g is silent 
in signet, 

Gn is liquid, i.e., has its natural sound in incognito and 
Agnus Dei, according to the Academy and the Italian pronun- 
ciation. 

H and the Diaeresis (••). 

ZT (first consonant) is generally mute, as: homme 
d'honneur. Diaeresis is equivalent to h mute, 
as : mats (mahis). 

H (second consonant) is aspirated : 

When it stands between two vowels : cohue, 
(crowd) ; 

In the following words : 



ha! 


hamac 


hareng 


Havre (city) 


habler (to brag) 


hameau 


hargneux 


havresac 


hache (axe) 


hampe 


(fighter) 


(knapsack) 


hagard 


hanche 


haricot 


h^ 


haie 


hangar 


haridelle 


hennir 


haillon 


hanneton 


harnais 


h^rault 


hair 


hanter 


haro 


here 


haire 


happer 


harpe 


h^risser 



148 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 



hdle 


haquen^e 


harpie 


hernie 


halage 


haquet 


harpon 


h^ron 


haletant 


harangue 


hart 


h^ros 


halle 


haras 


hasard 


herse 


hallebarde 


harasser 


hater 


hetre (oak) 


hallier 


harceler 


haubans 


heurter (hurt) 


haloir 


hardes 


haubert 


hibou (owl) 


halte 


hardi 


haut 


hideux 


hisser 


horde 


have 


hie (beetle) 


ho! 


hormis 


houppelande 


huguenot 


hocher 


hors 


houspiller 


humer 


hola 


hotte 


housse 


hume 


hongre 


houblon 


houx 


huppe 


honnir 


houille 


hoyau 


hure 


honte 


houlette 


huche 


hurler 


hoquet 


houleux 


hucher 


hussard 


hoqueton 


houppe 


houe 


huit 






huer 


hutte 



and In other words very little used ; 

In the derivatives and compounds of the pre- 
ceding words, as : enhardir^ enhavfiacher ; except 
exhauster^ exhaussement^ herdique^ heroine ; 

In almost all names of countries and cities, as : 
la Hollande^ la Hongrie^ etc. Usage allows us to 
say : frontage d^ Hollander toile d^ Hollande, 

In elevated discourse no elision nor connection of vowel is 
permitted before the proper noun Henri ; but both may be 
allowed in familiar discourse: le bon Henri (le bo nhenri). 
In Henriette, H is always silent. 

Before otize and oui, though written without h^ there is 
neither elision nor connection : de onze, il n'en reste que six; le 
oui et le non. In conversation, elision is allowed. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. I49 

I, Vowel. 

/ is the seventh vowel, icL 
/is not sounded in oigtwn, 

I and Y, Consonants. 

/ and y used as consonants form several diphthongs, as yeux. 
The prepositive /, Hke the liquids /, r, is often connected with 
a preceding consonant, as : piaffer (to paw the ground), //>^, 
biere, etc. There is no diphthong when / and the vowel 
following belong to two distinct syllables, as : hier, pieux, lieu^ 
nation, etc. These cases, by far more numerous than those in 
which i is consonant, can be learned only by usage, the reading 
of poets, or the use of dictionaries. In avant-hier, hier is a 
monosyllable, and ie consequently a diphthong. There is a 
diphthong in rayer, payer {xdx-x^x, pai-ier), but none in raie^ 
vie, etc. (See oi, oe, oy, oin, diphthongs.) 

J. 

J (eighth consonant) is the soft sound of ch. It has no 
irregularities. It is never double nor final. 

K. 

K (third consonant) is equivalent to c hard and to qu, as : 
kan, koran, kyrielle, kyste. 

L.. 

L is the fifth consonant, as : la, lot, k, lit. 

.Double // is usually pronounced as single 
allaiter^ allumer. 

Double // is sounded in words beginning with 
ill or coll, as : illusion, coUegiale, collationner 
(collate), and collation. 



150 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Except colle (glue), coller, college^ collier, colline, collation 
(light repast), collationer (to take a collation). 

Double // is pronounced in the following words and their 
derivatives : Allegoric, bellig^rant, hellenisme, solliciter, allu- 
sion, belliqueux, Hellespont, syllable, alluvion, constellation, 
intelligent, syllogisme, appellatif, ell^bore, oscillation, vaciller, 
appellation, gallican, palladium, vell^it^. 

But the pronunciation of double // is left free in the follow- 
ing : alleger, follicule, folliculaire, rebellion^ pellicule. 

Final / is not sounded in : baril, chenil, coutil, fils, fournil, 
fusil, gentil, gentilshommes, nombril, persil, saoul, sourcil, 
to which gril may be added. 

li Liquid. 

Final /, preceded by 2, is usually liquid (twen- 
tieth consonant) : babil, avril. Except in Nil 
(river), fil (thread), mil (nom. adj.), exil, Bresil, 
and the words in which / is silent. 

The ending ille is generally liquid, as : fille, 
aicruille. 

Except ville and its derivatives: Longueville, 
Albertville^ etc.; Achille, Gille^ idylle, pupille 
(pupil of the eye), sebille, sibylle, squille, tran- 
quille, and some others very little used. 

Aill, eill^ veill are always liquid, travailler^ 
oeillety s e7iorgueillir. 

Note. — Lh represents the liquid / in some words as pronounced in 
the South of France, as: Milhan, Dardailhac, and gentilhomme ; it is 
the Portuguese lh : cavalho. Gli represents / liquid in Italian words, or 
words of Italian origin: Cagliari, de Broglie (proper nouns). LI repre- 
sents / liquid in the Spanish words : guerillas, lleno. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. I5I 

M Consonant. 

-^(seventeenth consonant) has its proper value : 

At the beginning of words, as : viot, marteau; 

In the body of words before a vowel, as : dme, animal. 

Before «, in amnistie, automnalf calomniey somnambuley 
indemniser, indemnite. 

M is mute in damner^ condamner (da-ner, conda-ner) , and 
in their derivatives, and also in automne ; but it is sounded in 
triumvir, sepfemvir, decemvir, and their derivatives. 

Double mm is sounded as single m : commis^ 
commode. 

Except in words beginning with amm or imm, as : am- 
moniac, immense, immobile. Emtnanuel, gratnmaire. 

Double mm may be sounded in commensurable, commotion, 
commemoration, cofnmuer. 

In words beginning with em, which are compounded with the 
preposition en. In the first syllable m is only a nasal sign, as : 
emmener (en-mener) ; emmailloter {en-mailloter) . 

Final m is sounded in foreign words, as Lam, 
Cham, and in Latin words : maximum, interim, 
etc. 

But in Adam, the m is only a nasal sign (A-dan). 

N Consonant. 
iV (eighteenth consonant) has its proper value : 

At the beginning of words, as : noji, novice, nous. 
In the body of words before a vowel : anime, due. 



152 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Double nil is usually sounded as single n: 
annee^ anneau. 

Except annales, annates (annat-fruit) aniiexer^ annihiler, 
amiotation, an?tuaire, annider, enneagone, inne, innomme, in- 
nover, trie7inal, septennal^ and a few others but very little used. 
Final n is sounded in Tarn, and is silent in Beam (prov- 
ince). 

NASAL SIGNS OF VOWELS. 

M, N. 

§ I. — Cases in which M and N Render Vowels IN^asaL 

M and n render a preceding vowel nasal at the 
end of words : Adam, Absalon, daim (deer), serin. 

Except the words already quoted, Lem, album, etc. 
The third person plural of verbs, as : ils disent, Us disatent, 
etc. 

M and n render a preceding vowel nasal when 
they are followed by another consonant, as : am- 
puter, ancien, imbiber, i^tspirer^ ombre, lundi. 

Except monsieur, in which n is silent (mossieu) . 

The prepositions em and en are nasals even before another 
m or n, as : emmener, ennui {em-mener, en-nui) . 

In ennemi (in-amicus) en is a preposition, but it has a differ- 
ent meaning from the one it has when nasal (here it has a 
negative sense — in-amicus, non-amicus). 

The preposition en is nasal before vowels, as : 
enivrer, e7iorgueillir (en-ivrer, en-orgueillir). 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 1 53 

In some words beginning with en, as enorme, enoncery n is not 
a nasal sign, because these words are not compounded with the 
preposition en (in), but with the preposition e (ex). 

Final m is never connective, as : La peine du 
dam et celle du sens. 

The same may be said of final n^ as : Chacun 
aime ce qu'il juge bon et utile (and not: chacun- 
naime, bon-net). 

Final n of an adjective immediately followed by 
its noun ceases to be a nasal sign and becomes a 
connective, as : le divin amour ^ le malm esprit^ 
V1071 ami^ (divi-namour, mali nesprit, mo nami). 
L'un et Vautre^ Vun a rautre^ Vun apres V autre 
follow the same rule (I'u net I'autre . . .). Some 
authors hold a contrary opinion, and keep the 
nasal sound, as : un homme (un nhomme . . .). 

Final n in some words in frequent use, is connective, and yet 
sometimes nasal : en, on, Men, combien, rien, (in Paris, also 
mon, ton, son), bien aime, combien y en a-t-il. On admire^ 
mon ami, ton ouvrage, son esprit. 

§ II. — Particular Sound of Each Vowel Rendered 
Nasal by M, N. 

Am, an^ forming a nasal vowel according to 
the rules given above, are always the thirteenth 
vowel, and the first nasal, as: ambigu, angle. 
This observation is to be understood as applying 
through all this section. 



154 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Aim, ain represent the second nasal (in) : saint^ 
daim. 

Ell final represents the second nasal : bien^ 
Chretien, 

Except the monosyllable en : J 'en viens, en Amerique. 

Ent final represents the first nasal : prudent. 

Except the third person plural of verbs, as : ils coupent, 

Ents, ens final in the plural of nouns having the 
singular in ent, also represent the first nasal, as: 
les rudiments, les jeunes gens, 

Em, en at the beginning and in the body of 
words represent the first nasal (an) : embarrasser, 
enfler, attendre. 

En represents the second nasal in appendice, 
benjoin, chretiente, Bengale, Benjamin. Some say 
pintametre, other ?> pantametre (pentametre). 

Im, ym, in, eim always represent the second 
nasal : imprimer, thym (plant), ijtfi^ii, teindre. 

Om, on represent the third nasal, as : ombre, M. le comfe, 
on va confer un conte, 

O is silent in Laon, a city; faon, fawn; paon, peacock 
(Ian, fan, pan). 

A is silent in taon, horse-fly (ton) . 

E is silent in Caen, a city (Can). 

Un, eu7i, um always represent the fourth nasal, 
as: un, chacun,a jeu7i, parfum. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 1 55 

Un, um represent the third nasal in rumb , jimte ^ Humbert^ 
also in Munster and Tunkin. — Noel and Chapsal. 



O (eighth vowel) is generally acute : ko^loge, 
parole, etc. 

No other letters save z ox s soft follow o acute and final. 

O (ninth vowel) is grave when marked with the 
circumflex accent : apbtre. 

But in conversation, hopital, hotel, roti, instead of hSpital^ 
hdfelj roti. 

Final o is grave. It is also grave when fol- 
lowed by one or several letters not sounded, as : 
embargo, trop, mot, galop, etc. 

Trop is acute when connective, as trop aigu (tro-paigu), or 
when joined with the following word, as : trop riche, trop 
pauvre (troriche, tropauvre). 

In several provinces they pronounce pot, mot, etc., with the 
acute sound, and so distinguish the singular from the plural. 
But it is wrong. 

The ending os is less grave when s is sounded, 
as: Lesbos, rhinoceros. 

O is grave before / pronounced as s : devotion, 
motion, notion. 

O is grave before s soft, as : chose, dose. 

O is less grave in Cosaque, Osage, losange. Moselle (a river). 
O is acute ys\ philosophe, and grave \\i fosse, tome. 



156 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

O grave, in a word in which it is followed by s^ 
IS also grave in the derivatives of that word, as : 
dos^ dossier^ endosser ; gros^ grossir^ grassier ; but 
when o is grave because final, and when followed 
by any other letter than s, it ceases to be grave 
when it ceases to be final, as : accroc, accrocher^ etc. 

O is slightly grave in odeur and vomir. 

Diphthongs oi, oe, oy, oin. 

O consonant forms two diphthongs, oi, oin. The first is 
written oe in moelle and poele (marrow, pall) ; one in fouet 
(whip), oy in the body of the words. 

There are three different pronunciations for the diph- 
thong oi. 

The old pronunciation sounds it as open e, and this sound 
has been kept in moelle, fouet. 

The modern pronunciation sounds it as acute a, toi, roi 
(to-a, ro-a) . At the beginning of the present century it was 
sounded as e very open. 

The exaggerated pronunciation sounds it as a very grave, 
or a marked with the circumflex accent, as : rod, tod (roi, 
toi). 

But this last pronunciation ought to be carefully avoided, 
except in the following words : trois, mois, bois (wood) noix ' 
{miX),pois {^^^), poele (stove, frying-pan). 

Oi, followed by a vowel in the body of words, forms two 
diphthongs. Then y is equivalent to two Vs, one of which is 
a subjunctive of the diphthong oi, and the other a prepositive 
of the second diphthong, as : royal, citoyen (roi, \al, citoi, /en). 

Except in foreign words, as Loyola (Lo-yo-la). 

The diphthong oin presents no difficulty, as : foin (fo-in, 
hay). 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 1 5/ 

Compound Vowels oe, oeu. 

CE is equivalent to e close at the beginning 
of words of Greek derivation, as : cecumenique^ 
CEdipe. 

CE is sounded as eu acute in ceil and its derivatives ; ceu has 
the same sound in: c(Kurj choeur (choir), soeur^ boeuf, ceuf^ 
ceuvre, mosurs. 

Oeu, when final or followed by a silent letter, 
is sounded as eu grave, as : dceu/s {beu\ voeu^ 
nceud, 

Om, On, Aon. 

(See M, N, Nasal Signs.) 

Ou. 

Ou is the tenth vowel, as : joujou. 

O and u form two syllables when u is marked with a diaere- 
sis, as : Antinous (proper noun) . 

Ou Consonant. 

Ou is a consonant in : Oiii, ouate, ouais, fouet (first sylla- 
ble), rouet (first or second syllable), baragouin (patois), ba- 
bouin (baboon, simple), marsouin (sea-hog), sagouin (squirrel, 
monkey), tintoum (tingling). The ear cannot discover any 
difference in the pronunciation of these two endings, oin and 
ouin. 

P. 

P (thirteenth consonant) is the hard sound of b : pape, 
pitie. P is mute in : bapthiie (ba-teme) , baptiser, baptistaire^ 



158 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Baptiste, anabaptiste^ compter and its derivatives ; domptery 
exempt and its derivatives ; prompt and its derivatives, sept 
{'S>q\.q), septieme. Opinions differ about baptismal; some say: 
bap-tismal, and others ba-tismaL But / is sounded in exemp- 
tion and symptome. 

Double // is sounded as single p, as : f rapper, 
appre^tdre ; but it may be sounded double in ap- 
pendu, apposer. 

Final p is not pronounced, as : camp, trop ; 
except: Alep, cap, gap, julep, salep (a Turkish 
herb). 

P final and silent is connective only in trop 
and beaucoup, 

Ph Compound Consonant. 

Ph is equivalent to/, as : phare, philosophe, 

Q. 

Q is always joined with the letter Uy except at the end 
of words. In either case it is sounded like K (third conso- 
nant) coq, quatre. 

Q is not sounded in eoq d'inde, nor in cinq, when imme- 
diately followed by a noun beginning with a consonant : dnq 
personnes (cin personnes). 

R. 

R is the sixth consonant, as : roi, prince, erreur. 
Double rr is sounded as single r, as : garroter, 
terroir, etc. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 1 59 

Except : errer^ erreur^ narrer^ abhorrer^ horrible , irriter 
and its derivatives, torrefier (to roast), torref action ; and the 
future tense oi courir^ mourir (je courrai, je mourrai). 

Double rr may be sounded in : resurrection, terrestre, 
terreur, and its derivatives, torrent^ torride. 

R final is sounded when preceded by a, i, o, or 
u ; except in monsieur and messieurs, 

R final preceded by e is usually not sounded, 
but, as we have seen, it gives to e the value of the 
aCute accent : aimer^ etranger, 

R final is sounded : 

In monosyllables, as fer, cher, mer. 

In the following words : amer (bitter), cancer, enfer, ether, 
belveder, cuiller, cether, hier, hiver, Lucifer, Jupiter, Esther, 
magister. 

In foreign words, as : f rater, gaster, Niger; except Alger. 

R followed by a consonant is sounded, as ; vers (against, 
toward), verd (green). 

R final and silent is connective : 

In infinitives, as : aimer a rire ; 

In adjectives immediately followed by their nouns, as : un 
singulier attachement, k premier homme ; but r is not connec- 
tive in le premier avril, le premier aout, meaning the first day 
of these months. 

S. 
6" (ninth consonant) is equivalent to f marked 
with a cedilla, or to c before e or i, as : saints 
absolu. 

S between two vowels is soft, and has the sound 
of 2, as : Asie^ oiseau. Except : desuetude, m.ono- 



l6o MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

syllable, parasol, polysyllable, preseance, presup- 
poser (first syllable), vraisemblable and its deriv- 
atives. 6^ may be soft or not in : nous gisons, 
gisa7tt, gisement. 

S is soft in : transiger^ transaction, transitoire, Alsace, bal- 
samine, balsamique. 

Double ss or s followed by ce, is sounded as 
single s, as : assez, descendre ; except : ascete, con- 
descendre and its derivatives. 

Double ss may be sounded in : assentiment, Assyrie, essence, 
passif. 

Final s is generally silent, as : verglas, Paris ; 
but it is sounded in : as (ace), mars, mceurs, laps de 
temps, re laps, aloes, cens, lis, jadis, m>dis, b locus, 
ours, lorsque, puisque, Damas (a city), Rheims (a 
city), Stanislas, Menelas, and a few other proper 
nouns; Iris, prospectus, and in others derived 
from Latin or Greek. 

Final s is never sounded in : bon sens, contre sens, sens 
common, sens rassis. 

Final s is sounded in tous when that word is absolute, 
and refers to a preceding noun, as : tous (tou) les eleves sont 
en classe : ils ont tous (tousse) recite leur legon. 

When tous is absolute, it keeps the same pronunciation even 
when followed by a vowel, as : tous admirent; pronounced 
tou^admirent, and not touz nor touce zadmirent. 

Final s is sounded in plus que par/ait and in the plural of 
plus-petition, plus-value. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. l6l 

S final is always connected in the plural : des 
corps humains. 

Final s, not sounded, is connective when pre- 
ceded by a vowel or by a silent consonant, as : 
succes etonnant^ le fils et le fere, 

S final, preceded by r, is not connective, except 
in the plural, as : le corps humain (le-co-rhu- 
main). 

Toujours is an exception ; but in the best style, s is always 
connective : // a toujours ecrity toujours il ecrira. 

But this exception cannot be extended to all nouns ending in 
ours. Good taste and the ear will determine the pronunciation. 

T. 

Z" (eleventh consonant) is the hard sound of </, 

as : tete^ teriter, 

Tt, followed by a vowel, has the sound of s, but this never 
takes place at the beginning of words : martial, gentiane, 

Tt, followed by a vowel, does not take the 
sound of ^ ; 

In verbs when t has its value in the infinitive, as: nous 
mettions (mettre), nous parHons (partir). 

When / is preceded by s or x, in the same word, as : Eucha- 
ristie, mixtion. 

In words in which / was formerly preceded by s, as : chreiien 
(chrestien), chdtier (chastier). 

In words ending in tie, derived from Latin, but not having 
the Latin ending tia, as: ortie (urtica), pariie (pars); also 
galimatias. 



l62 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATlOxN. 

Double // is pronounced as single /, as : attendre, 
attention; but it is sounded double in attique, 
atticisme^ pittoresque ; and may be sounded double 
in attenuer^ guttural. 

Final / is seldom sounded, as : effet, mot, sainte- 
ment ; except: abject (abjecte), aspect, correct, 
direct, i7ifect, suspect, strict, exact. 

Yacht is pronounced yaque, though in EngUsh it is pro- 
nounced yot. 

Final / is sounded in accessif, and other foreign words. In 
Christ and Antechrist, but not m Jesus Christ. 

T, final, is sounded in sept and huit, when absolute, as : lis 
sont septy le huit septembre ; but / is mute, when these adjectives 
are immediately followed by their substantives beginning with 
a consonant, as : sept manteaux, huit mouchoirs {se manteaux). 

Final / in vingt, is sounded in its compounds up to vingt-neuf, 
as : vingt-et-un, vingt deux, etc. 

7' final is sounded in mat : echec et mat; it may be sounded 
in/<2/, as: c^est unfat {izr\.€), 

T' final in the substantive yij;// may be sounded at the end of 
a sentence : c'est unfait. 

Final / is connective : il fut heureux pendant 
U7i an, 

7" final in respect \s silent in respect humain (respe k'humain). 

T final, preceded by r in nouns as well as in 
verbs, is not connective: il dort a V ombre i^ do- 
ra lombre). The r is then connective. 

Except in interrogative sentences, before //, elle, or on, as : 
dort-il? (dor- til), doit-elle ? finit-on ? 
In mort aux rats. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 163 

T final preceded by r is connective in adjectives 
immediately followed by their substantives, and 
also in adverbs, as : fort etrange (for-tetrange), 
un court espace de temps. 

In the expression, a tort et a travers, t is not sounded, and 
is not connective. 

Th Compound Consonant. 

Th is sounded as simple /, except : 

Thi, which never takes the sound of s^ as : Mathias. 
Th final is always sounded, as : luth^ zenith^ Nazareth. 

U. 

U (eleventh vowel) as : usure. 

U may be syllabic, a mute, or a consonant. 

U consonant forms four diphthongs : ua, ue, ui, uin. 

G-ua is pronounced oua. in Guadalquivir, Guadeloupe. 

(^-ua (oua) in the derivatives of quatre, beginning with 
quadr, as : quadruple, quadragesimal ; but quadrille is sounded 
kadrille. 

In quatuor, quaterne, quinquagenaire (both syllables), quin- 
quagesime, equateur, equation, quaker. 

Q^ue in quinquennal, quinquennium, questeur, questure, 
equestre, liquefaction. 

Qt-ui m aiguille, aiguillon, aiguiser, le Guide, Guise (proper 
noun and city) . 

(^-ui in equilateral, equitation, quirinal, quietisme, quibus, 
quitus. 

(^-uin in quintuple, quinquagenaire, quinquagesime, quin, 
quennal, quinquennium, Quinte-Curce, Quintilien. 

When u, preceded by g or q, is not a consonant, it is mute, 



164 MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 

as : quand (kan), guimpe (g-impe) ; but if the vowel following 
is marked with a diaeresis, then u becomes syllabic, as : aigu'e, 

Ui, uin are diphthongs when preceded by any 
consonant other than g or q, as : lui, juin, 

Ua, ue form two syllables when they are pre- 
ceded by any consonant other than g^ q, as : 
muable^ muet, 

Un, um (see above). 

V. 

F' (fourteenth consonant) is the soft sound ofy^ 

as : veuve, 

w. 

W in French or German words is sounded as 
single v^ as : Wailly, Wurtemburg ( Vailly, Vur- 
temburg). 

In English words, w is sounded as ou, unless usage has 
decided differently : William (ouilliam) . 

In Polish and Russian words, w is pronounced as v at the 
beginning and in the body of words ; and as / at the end of 
words : Saratow (Saratof) . 

X. 

X initial is equivalent to gz, as : Xavier ; and 
sometimes to cs as : Xiphoide. 

X followed by a consonant is equivalent to cs, 
as : exception, expedient. 

X is equivalent to gz after e initial and before 
a vowel : examen, exemple. 



MANUAL OF PRONUNCIATION. 165 

In all other cases where x is between two 
vowels it is sounded as cs, as : Alexandre, luxe 
(lucse). 

Except : x is equivalent to double ss in Brux- 
elles, Auxerre, Auxonne, soixante, St. Germain 
rAuxerrois follows the rule. 

X final is sounded as cs : Palafox, Styx, Pollux. 
It is sounded as s in dix, six, Aix (city). 

X is not sounded in deux, nor when it is the sign of the 
plural, nor in six and dix when they are immediately followed 
by their substantives beginning with a consonant. 

Final x not sounded is connective, and takes 
the sound of z : deux hommes (deu z'hommes). 

Y. 

(See i, ai, ei, oi.) 

Z. 

Z (tenth consonant) is the soft sound of s: 
zele, Zelande. 

Final z is usually not pronounced, but gives to 
the preceding e the value of an acute accent, as : 
chez (che). 

Final z is sounded in : gaz, Fez (proper noun) . 

At the end of some proper nouns z takes the sound of hard 
s : Suez, Metz (Suess, Mess). 

In Spanish words z is sounded as the lisping c, marked with 
the cedilla, Zumola ; and in Italian words as ds or is : Man- 
zoni, Pazzi. 



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